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Complete Indian Polity — Constitution, Fundamental Rights, Parliament, Judiciary, State Government, Elections, Governance.
| Milestone | Detail |
|---|---|
| Constituent Assembly formed | December 1946 (under Cabinet Mission Plan) |
| First session | 9 December 1946 (incomplete attendance) |
| Objective Resolution | Introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946; adopted on 22 January 1947 |
| Drafting Committee chairman | Dr B.R. Ambedkar (7 members total) |
| Draft prepared | February 1948 |
| Public discussion period | October 1948 — 8 months for suggestions |
| Constitution adopted | 26 November 1949 — Constitution Day (Samvidhan Divas) |
| Constitution came into force | 26 January 1950 — Republic Day |
| Total CA members | 389 (299 from British India + 93 from Princely States); 15 women |
| Sessions held | 11 sessions over 2 years 11 months 18 days |
| Total expenditure | Approx. Rs 64 lakh |
| Member | Role |
|---|---|
| Dr B.R. Ambedkar | Chairman — chief architect of the Constitution |
| N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar | Member |
| Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar | Member |
| K.M. Munshi | Member |
| Syed Mohammad Saadullah | Member |
| N. Madhava Rau | Member |
| B.L. Mitter | Member (replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari) |
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Written Constitution | Longest written constitution in the world — originally 395 Articles, 22 Parts, 8 Schedules; now 470+ Articles, 25 Parts, 12 Schedules |
| Drawn from multiple sources | GoI Act 1935 (framework), UK (Parliamentary form), USA (FR, Judicial Review), Ireland (DPSP), Canada (Federation), Australia (Concurrent List), USSR (Fundamental Duties), Germany (Emergency), South Africa (Amendment process), Japan (Procedure established by Law) |
| Blend of rigidity & flexibility | Some provisions need special majority (Art 368), some simple majority, some special majority + state ratification |
| Federal with unitary bias | Federal: written constitution, dual polity, bicameralism, division of powers, independent judiciary. Unitary: strong centre, single constitution, single citizenship, integrated judiciary, Governor appointed by centre, all-India services, emergency provisions |
| Parliamentary form | Executive responsible to legislature; Westminster model; President = nominal head, PM = real head |
| Independent judiciary | Supreme Court & High Courts; judicial review power; security of tenure for judges |
| Single citizenship | Only Indian citizenship (no separate state citizenship); promotes national unity |
| Fundamental Rights | Art 12-35; justiciable; protect individuals against arbitrary state action |
| DPSP | Art 36-51; non-justiciable; guidelines for a just society; inspired by Irish Constitution |
| Fundamental Duties | Art 51A; 11 duties added by 42nd Amendment (1976); not directly enforceable |
| Secular state | No official religion; state treats all religions equally; FoR is a fundamental right |
| Universal adult franchise | Every citizen above 18 years can vote (reduced from 21 by 61st Amendment, 1989) |
| Emergency provisions | National (Art 352), State/President's Rule (Art 356), Financial (Art 360) |
| Three-tier government | Central, State, and Local (Panchayati Raj 73rd, Municipalities 74th) |
| Country | Features Borrowed |
|---|---|
| GoI Act 1935 | Federal scheme, Governor, Judiciary, Public Service Commissions, Emergency, Admin details |
| UK (Britain) | Parliamentary form, Rule of Law, Single citizenship, Cabinet system, Prerogative writs, Bicameralism, Ministerial responsibility |
| USA | Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Electoral College, Independence of judiciary, Removal of judges |
| Ireland | Directive Principles, Method of President election, Nominating RS members |
| Canada | Federation with strong centre, Residuary powers with centre, Governor appointment by centre |
| Australia | Concurrent List, Joint sitting, Freedom of trade, Inter-State Council |
| USSR | Fundamental Duties, Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog) |
| Germany (Weimar) | Emergency provisions (Suspension of FR during Emergency) |
| South Africa | Amendment procedure, Election to Rajya Sabha |
| France | Republic, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity ideals |
| Japan | Procedure established by Law (Art 21) |
| Schedule | Subject | Key Points |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | States & UTs | Names & territorial boundaries of 28 States and 8 UTs |
| 2nd | Oath/Affirmation | Formats for oath for various constitutional posts |
| 3rd | Forms of Oath | Specific forms for Ministers, judges, CAG |
| 4th | Rajya Sabha seats | State-wise allocation of Rajya Sabha seats |
| 5th | Scheduled Areas | Provisions for Scheduled Areas & Scheduled Tribes |
| 6th | NE Tribal Areas | Special provisions for Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram |
| 7th | Three Lists | Union (97), State (66), Concurrent (47) subjects |
| 8th | Languages | 22 recognized languages; Hindi & English official |
| 9th | Land Reforms | Land reform laws beyond judicial review (partially repealed by 44th Amendment) |
| 10th | Anti-Defection | Disqualification on ground of defection (52nd Amendment) |
| 11th | Panchayats | 73rd Amendment — 3-tier local govt; SC/ST/Women reservation |
| 12th | Municipalities | 74th Amendment — Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Corporation |
| Type | Provisions Covered | Procedure | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Simple majority | Creation of states, citizenship, admission of states, abolition of Legislative Councils, salaries, delimitation | Only majority of members present & voting (Art 368 not needed) | State formation (Art 3-4), Legislative Council (Art 169) |
| Special majority | FR, DPSP, election of President, distribution of powers | Majority of total membership + 2/3 of members present & voting in each House | Amendments to FR, DPSP, Art 52-78 |
| Special majority + State ratification | Election of President, executive power, SC & HC, 7th Schedule, representation in Parliament | Special majority in Parliament + ratification by half of State Legislatures | Amendment to 7th Schedule |
| Component | Case / Year |
|---|---|
| Supremacy of the Constitution | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Republican & Democratic form of government | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Secular character of the Constitution | SR Bommai (1994) |
| Separation of powers | Kesavananda Bharati (1973); Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) |
| Federal character of the Constitution | S.R. Bommai (1994) |
| Sovereignty and integrity of India | Minerva Mills (1980) |
| Welfare state (social justice) | Minerva Mills (1980) |
| Judicial review | Minerva Mills (1980); Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) |
| Freedom & dignity of the individual | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Rule of Law | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Harmony and balance between FR and DPSP | Minerva Mills (1980) |
| Effective access to justice | Central Coal Fields case (1980) |
| Principle of free & fair elections | Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) |
| Limited power of Parliament to amend | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Independence of Judiciary | Second Judges case (1993); NJAC case (2015) |
| Principle of reasonableness | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith & worship | Kesavananda Bharati (1973) |
| Right | Articles | Key Provisions | Restrictions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Right to Equality | Art 14–18 | Equality before law (14); Prohibition of discrimination (15); Equality of opportunity in employment (16); Abolition of untouchability (17); Abolition of titles (18) | Art 15(3): women & children; Art 15(4): SC/ST/OBC; Art 15(5): educational institutions; Art 16(4): reservations |
| Right to Freedom | Art 19–22 | Six freedoms (19); Protection against conviction (20); Life & personal liberty (21); Protection against arrest & detention (22) | Reasonable restrictions under Art 19(2)-(6): sovereignty, security, public order, decency, morality, contempt of court, defamation |
| Right against Exploitation | Art 23–24 | Prohibition of traffic in human beings & forced labour (23); Prohibition of child labour below 14 (24) | Absolute rights — no restrictions; Art 23 enforceable against State & private individuals |
| Right to Freedom of Religion | Art 25–28 | Freedom of conscience & profession (25); Manage religious affairs (26); No religious tax (27); No religious instruction in state-funded institutions (28) | Art 25(1): public order, morality & health; Art 26: same; does not cover economic/political/secular activities |
| Cultural & Educational Rights | Art 29–30 | Protection of minority interests (29); Right to establish & administer educational institutions (30) | Art 29(2): No denial of admission on grounds of religion, race, caste, language |
| Right to Constitutional Remedies | Art 32 | Right to move SC for enforcement of FR; Dr Ambedkar called it "Heart and Soul"; SC can issue 5 writs | Cannot be suspended except during Emergency (Art 359) |
| Article | Provision | Key Points |
|---|---|---|
| 14 | Equality before law | State shall not deny equality before law or equal protection. From British Rule of Law. Applies to ALL persons (citizens + non-citizens). Permits reasonable classification (not arbitrary). |
| 15 | Prohibition of discrimination | No discrimination on religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth. Citizens only. 15(3): special provisions for women & children. 15(4): SC/ST. 15(5): reservations in educational institutions including private (93rd Amendment). |
| 16 | Equality in public employment | Equal opportunity for all citizens. 16(3): Parliament can prescribe residence. 16(4): reservation for backward classes. 16(4A): consequential seniority for SC/ST (77th Amendment). 16(4B): carrying forward unfilled vacancies (85th Amendment). |
| 17 | Abolition of untouchability | Practice of untouchability forbidden. Punishable offence. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955. SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Against State & private individuals. |
| 18 | Abolition of titles | No title (except military & academic) shall be conferred. Bharat Ratna, Padma awards are NOT titles (mere recognition). Foreign titles need President's consent. |
| Freedom | Clause | Restriction Grounds |
|---|---|---|
| Speech & Expression | 19(1)(a) | Sovereignty, security, foreign relations, public order, decency, morality, contempt of court, defamation, incitement |
| Peaceful Assembly | 19(1)(b) | Sovereignty & integrity, public order |
| Form Associations | 19(1)(c) | Sovereignty & integrity, public order, morality |
| Free Movement | 19(1)(d) | General public interest, protection of Scheduled Tribes |
| Reside & Settle | 19(1)(e) | General public interest, protection of Scheduled Tribes |
| Profession/Trade | 19(1)(g) | General public interest; professional/technical qualifications may be prescribed |
| Writ | Meaning | When Issued | Against Whom |
|---|---|---|---|
| Habeas Corpus | "Produce the body" | Unlawful detention; court orders authority to produce detained person | Any person who detained someone unlawfully |
| Mandamus | "We command" | Public officer fails to perform mandatory public duty | Public officer, tribunal, corporation, inferior court |
| Prohibition | "To forbid" | Lower court exceeds jurisdiction BEFORE order passed | Lower court or tribunal |
| Certiorari | "To be certified" | Quash order of lower court that exceeded jurisdiction AFTER order passed | Lower court or tribunal |
| Quo Warranto | "By what authority" | Challenge legality of a person holding public office | Person holding a public office |
| Duty | Description |
|---|---|
| 1 | Abide by the Constitution, respect the National Flag and National Anthem |
| 2 | Cherish and follow the noble ideals of the freedom struggle |
| 3 | Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India |
| 4 | Defend the country and render national service when called upon |
| 5 | Promote harmony and common brotherhood; renounce practices derogatory to women's dignity |
| 6 | Preserve our rich cultural heritage |
| 7 | Protect and improve natural environment — forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife |
| 8 | Develop scientific temper, humanism, spirit of inquiry and reform |
| 9 | Safeguard public property, abjure violence |
| 10 | Strive towards excellence in all spheres of activity |
| 11 | Provide opportunities for education to children aged 6-14 years (86th Amendment) |
| Classification | Articles | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| Socialist/Welfare | Art 38, 39, 39A, 41-43A, 47 | Social order for welfare; adequate livelihood; prevent wealth concentration; equal pay; free legal aid; right to work & education; maternity relief; living wage; workers' participation; nutrition & health |
| Gandhian | Art 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48 | Village panchayats; cottage industries; early childhood education; SC/ST advancement; prohibit intoxicants; agriculture on scientific lines; cow protection |
| Liberal-Intellectual | Art 44, 45, 48A, 49, 50, 51 | Uniform Civil Code; environment protection; monuments; separate judiciary & executive; international peace |
| Aspect | Fundamental Rights | DPSP |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Justiciable (enforceable by courts) | Non-justiciable (not enforceable) |
| Inspiration | USA Bill of Rights | Irish Constitution |
| Purpose | Political democracy | Social & economic democracy |
| Restrictions | Can be restricted by State | Cannot override FR (Champakam Dorairajan case) |
| Amendability | Amendable by Parliament | Amendable by Parliament |
| Promotes | Individual liberty | Social welfare |
| Enforcement | Art 32 (SC), Art 226 (HC) | No specific enforcement mechanism |
| Type | Articles | During National Emergency | During President's Rule |
|---|---|---|---|
| Can be suspended | Art 14–18, 19, 20(3), 25–28 | Under Art 358 or 359; Art 19 automatically suspended; others by presidential order | Not suspended — FR continue to apply |
| Cannot be suspended | Art 20, 21 | 44th Amendment (1978) made them non-suspendable even during Emergency | Always available; CANNOT be suspended under any circumstances |
| Partial suspension | Art 32 | Under Art 359 only; the right to move SC is suspended but FR itself is not; 44th Amendment allowed partial suspension | Not applicable |
| Case | Year | Holding |
|---|---|---|
| A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras | 1950 | Art 21 means procedure established by law (not due process); personal liberty narrowly interpreted; SC took literal approach. Overruled by Maneka Gandhi. |
| I.C. Golaknath v. State of Punjab | 1967 | Parliament cannot amend FR; Art 368 only prescribes procedure; FR transcend the amending power. Overruled by Kesavananda. |
| Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala | 1973 | Parliament CAN amend any provision including FR; BUT cannot destroy basic structure. Established Basic Structure Doctrine. |
| Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India | 1978 | Art 21 procedure must be just, fair, reasonable; expanded scope of Art 14, 19, 21; golden triangle of Art 14, 19, 21; overruled Gopalan. |
| Minerva Mills v. Union of India | 1980 | Balance between FR & DPSP is basic feature; 42nd Amendment giving primacy to DPSP over FR unconstitutional; limited amendment power. |
| SR Bommai v. Union of India | 1994 | Art 356 subject to judicial review; secularism basic feature; misuse of Art 356 unconstitutional; floor test mandatory. |
| Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan | 1997 | SC laid down guidelines for prevention of sexual harassment at workplace; filled legislative vacuum until 2013 Act. |
| PUCL v. Union of India | 2003 | Voters' right to know about candidates; disclosure of criminal records, assets, education mandatory. |
| KS Puttaswamy v. Union of India | 2017 | Right to Privacy is a fundamental right under Art 21; intrinsic to life & liberty; autonomous right; not absolute. |
| Type | Powers | Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| Executive | All executive action of Union taken in name of President; appoints PM, Ministers, Governor, Attorney General, CJI & judges, CAG, UPSC Chairman, Election Commissioners, members of Finance Commission | Appoints PM (leader of majority party); can seek information from PM |
| Legislative | Summons, prorogues, dissolves Parliament; nominates 12 members to RS; 2 Anglo-Indian members to LS; addresses first session after election & first session each year (joint sitting); can send messages to Houses; lays reports before Parliament; can promulgate Ordinances (Art 123); can withhold assent to bills; Pocket veto available | Ordinance must be approved within 6 weeks of reassembly; Veto types: Absolute, Suspensive, Pocket |
| Financial | Contingency Fund of India at disposal; all money bills require his recommendation; causes Budget to be laid; appoints Finance Commission every 5 years (Art 280) | Consolidated Fund of India; charged expenditures do not need his recommendation |
| Judicial | Power to grant pardon, reprieve, respite, remission of punishment; in all cases where punishment is by court martial; death sentence cases; cases under Union laws | Under Art 72; pardoning power not subject to judicial review except for arbitrariness |
| Military | Supreme Commander of Defence Forces; appoints Chief of Staff of Army, Navy, Air Force; war declarations with Parliamentary approval | Cannot declare war independently |
| Emergency | National Emergency (Art 352), President's Rule (Art 356), Financial Emergency (Art 360) | Must be advised by Cabinet (42nd Amendment removed power to act on own opinion) |
| Aspect | Prime Minister | Council of Ministers |
|---|---|---|
| Appointment | By President; leader of majority party in LS (or coalition) | Appointed by President on advice of PM |
| Qualifications | Citizen of India; member of either House of Parliament (can be non-member for 6 months) | Must be member of either House within 6 months; not exceeding 15% of LS strength (91st Amendment) |
| Term | Not fixed; holds office during pleasure of President (in reality, as long as majority in LS) | Collectively responsible to Lok Sabha (Art 75(3)) |
| Powers | Real executive; advises President; distributes portfolios; presides over Cabinet; advises President on appointments | Cabinet decides policies; Ministers head departments; advise President individually |
| Oath | Taken before the President ("I shall bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution...") | Same oath; secrecy of information |
| Categories | Not categorized | Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State (independent charge or attached), Deputy Ministers |
| Resignation/Removal | Resigns when loses majority in LS or dies | Council of Ministers dissolved when PM resigns/dies; individual ministers resign on PM's advice |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Appointment | By President (not elected); convention: Chief Minister consulted (Sarkaria Commission recommendation) |
| Term | 5 years; holds office during pleasure of President; can be removed earlier by President |
| Qualifications | Citizen of India; age >= 35 years; not member of either House of Parliament or State Legislature |
| Powers — Executive | All executive action of state in name of Governor; appoints CM, Ministers, Advocate General, State Election Commissioner, Chairman SPSC, Vice-Chancellors (with CM advice) |
| Powers — Legislative | Summons, prorogues, dissolves State Legislative Assembly; nominates 1 member to Legislative Council (if exists); 1 Anglo-Indian member; can withhold assent to bills; can reserve bills for President's consideration; can promulgate ordinances |
| Powers — Financial | Contingency Fund of State at disposal; causes Budget to be laid before Assembly |
| Powers — Judicial | Can grant pardon, reprieve, respite, remission of punishment in cases under state laws; cannot pardon death sentence |
| Powers — Discretionary | Recommends President's Rule (Art 356); reserves bills for President; submits report to President regarding failure of constitutional machinery (special responsibility in 5th & 6th Schedule areas) |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Constitutional basis | Part IX, Articles 243–243O; came into effect on 24 April 1993 |
| 3-tier structure | Gram Panchayat (village level); Panchayat Samiti / Block Panchayat (block level); Zilla Parishad (district level) |
| Reservation for SC/ST | Proportionate to their population at all three levels |
| Reservation for Women | At least 1/3rd of total seats; 1/3rd of SC/ST reserved seats reserved for women; also 1/3rd of chairperson positions (at all levels) |
| Election | Direct election by the people; every 5 years; conducted by State Election Commission |
| Finance | State Finance Commission reviews financial position every 5 years (Art 243I); grants by State and Union |
| Powers | 29 subjects in 11th Schedule (agriculture, land improvement, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fisheries, social forestry, small-scale industries, rural housing, drinking water, roads, education, health, family welfare, women & child development, social welfare, welfare of weaker sections, public distribution, maintenance of community assets) |
| Gram Sabha | Village assembly of all registered voters; foundation of Panchayati Raj; supervises GP; power to approve plans |
| Type | Coverage | Governance |
|---|---|---|
| Nagar Panchayat | Transitional area (rural to urban) | For areas in transition from rural to urban |
| Municipal Council | Smaller urban area | For smaller cities and towns |
| Municipal Corporation | Larger urban area | For larger cities with population of 10 lakh+ |
| Committee | Year | Key Recommendations |
|---|---|---|
| Sarkaria Commission | 1988 | Strong Centre but within federal framework; Inter-State Council should be permanent; Governor not to be dismissed without consulting CM; Art 356 to be used sparingly; concurrent list needs streamlining |
| Punchhi Commission | 2010 | Cooperative federalism; Governor should not be given 5-year fixed term; local emergency provisions; CBI autonomy; Art 355 for communal violence; unified homeland security |
| Rajamannar Committee | 1969 | Autonomous states; Centre-State relations restructured; All-India Services scrapped; more financial autonomy to states; Inter-State Council recommended |
| Anandpur Sahib Resolution | 1973 | More powers to states; Centre to handle only defence, foreign affairs, currency; all other subjects to states; inspired greater autonomy demands |
| Type | Article | Grounds | Effects | Revocation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| National Emergency | Art 352 | War, external aggression (external emergency), or armed rebellion (internal emergency) | FR under Art 19 suspended; Art 20 & 21 remain; Art 32 remains; federal structure becomes unitary; President can modify financial distribution; can extend by 6 months each time with Parliamentary approval | Proclaimed by President on written advice of Cabinet; must be approved by Parliament within 1 month; by simple majority; lasts maximum 3 years unless extended. Revoked by President at any time |
| President's Rule (State Emergency) | Art 356 | Failure of constitutional machinery in a state (on Governor's report or otherwise) | State Legislature dissolved/suspended; Parliament legislates for state; Governor administers with President's direction; can be extended up to 3 years; SC can review (SR Bommai case 1994) | Proclaimed by President; must be approved by Parliament within 2 months by simple majority; can continue for 6 months at a time up to 3 years max |
| Financial Emergency | Art 360 | Threat to financial stability or credit of India | President can direct States to reduce salaries; all money bills of states reserved for President; can issue directions for financial propriety | Never been proclaimed in India so far; must be approved by Parliament within 2 months |
| Subject | Details |
|---|---|
| All-India Services (Art 312) | Three services: Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Police Service (IPS), Indian Forest Service (IFoS). Created by Parliament; recruited by UPSC; appointed by President; can serve in both Centre & States; disciplinary control by State government but ultimate control by Centre. Rajamannar Committee (1969) & Sarkaria Commission (1988) recommended continuation. |
| Central Services | Central Civil Services Group A (IAS, IFS, IRS, etc.), Group B, Group C (now merged with Group B); recruited by UPSC/SSC; serve only under Union Government |
| State Services | Recruited by State Public Service Commission (SPSC); serve under State Government; e.g., State Civil Service, State Police Service; can be promoted to IAS/IPS (after certain years of service) |
| Finance Commission (Art 280) | Constituted every 5 years by President; Chairman + 4 other members; recommends distribution of net tax proceeds between Centre & States; grants-in-aid to States; measures to strengthen State finances; principles governing grants-in-aid of local bodies. 15th Finance Commission (Chairman: NK Singh) submitted report for 2021-26. |
| Inter-State Council (Art 263) | Established 1990; chaired by PM; all CMs are members; discusses inter-state disputes, common interests; advisory body — recommendations not binding; permanent body constituted under Presidential order |
| Zonal Councils | 5 Zonal Councils (North, South, East, West, Central) under States Reorganization Act, 1956; chaired by Union Home Minister; discuss economic & social planning, border disputes, linguistic minorities, inter-state transport; advisory in nature |
| GST Council (Art 279A) | Constitutional body since 101st Amendment (2016); chaired by Union Finance Minister; all State Finance Ministers are members; recommends rates, exemptions, dispute resolution; 1/3rd voting of Centre + 2/3rd of States; 3/4th majority required (Centre: 1/3rd of 1/3rd); decisions binding |
| Committee | Chairperson | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) | Prime Minister | Highest decision-making body on security; national security, defence, strategic issues; deals with atomic energy, space, foreign policy; most important Cabinet Committee |
| Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) | Prime Minister | Economic policy; major investment decisions; price policy; foreign investment proposals; disinvestment; public sector undertakings |
| Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) | Prime Minister | Political matters; government's parliamentary strategy; coalition management; electoral strategy |
| Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC) | Prime Minister | Appointments to senior posts: CJI, HC judges (Collegium recommendation), CAG, CEC, UPSC Chairman, ambassadors; PM, Home Minister, concerned Minister are members |
| Cabinet Committee on Parliamentary Affairs | Union Minister of Parliamentary Affairs | Government business in Parliament; legislative programme; advising President on summoning/proroguing sessions |
| Cabinet Committee on Accommodation | Union Home Minister | Allocation of government accommodation; housing policy |
| Cabinet Committee on Investment & Growth | Prime Minister | Infrastructure investment; project monitoring; growth strategies |
| Bill Type | Introduced In | Passed By | President's Veto | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ordinary Bill | Either House | Both Houses (simple majority); joint sitting if disagreement (Art 108) | Can withhold assent, return once (suspensive veto), pocket veto available | Can be introduced by any member; does not require prior permission |
| Money Bill | Lok Sabha only (Art 109) | LS only (RS can discuss & suggest within 14 days; LS may or may not accept); no joint sitting | Cannot return — must give assent (may or may not do so); no pocket veto possible effectively | Only on recommendation of President; covers taxation, spending, borrowing, financial matters listed in Art 110 |
| Financial Bill | Either House (Art 117) | Both Houses (simple majority) | Can return (suspensive veto) | Covers matters in Art 117; different from Money Bill; can be introduced in either House |
| Constitutional Amendment Bill | Either House | Both Houses separately by special majority (2/3 present + majority of total); no joint sitting (Art 368) | Must give assent (no veto power); some need state ratification too | Cannot be introduced in RS if it seeks to change federal structure; requires prior President recommendation in some cases |
| Proceeding | Description | Rules |
|---|---|---|
| Question Hour | First hour of every sitting (11 AM–12 noon); MPs ask questions to ministers | 3 types: Starred (oral answer + supplementaries), Unstarred (written answer), Short Notice (less than 10 days notice) |
| Zero Hour | Immediately after Question Hour (12 noon); informal device; MPs raise matters of urgent public importance | No formal rule; not mentioned in Rules of Procedure; started in 1962; Speaker decides which matters to take up |
| Adjournment Motion | Raises matter of urgent public importance; requires support of 50 members; results in adjournment of business | Allowed only in LS; Rajya Sabha has "Calling Attention" instead; can be moved only in Lok Sabha; need speaker's permission |
| Calling Attention | Similar to Adjournment Motion but does not result in adjournment | Available in both Houses; member calls minister's attention to matter of urgent public importance; minister gives statement followed by brief discussion |
| No-Confidence Motion | States LS has lost confidence in Council of Ministers; debated & voted upon; requires support of 50 members | Only in Lok Sabha (not Rajya Sabha); if passed, PM must resign; no need to state reasons; can be moved any time during session except during special address |
| Censure Motion | States dissatisfaction with specific policy or action of government | Need not result in resignation; specific reasons must be stated |
| Cut Motion | Moved during discussion on Demand for Grants (budget); seeks to reduce amount of demand | 3 types: Policy Cut, Economy Cut, Token Cut; if passed, government may have to resign |
| Privilege Motion | Breach of privilege of House or its members | Motion admitted by Speaker; Committee of Privileges examines; can recommend action |
| Committee | Type | Members | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| Public Accounts Committee (PAC) | Standing | 22 members (15 LS + 7 RS); elected by LS; Chairperson from Opposition (convention) | Examines CAG reports on Union accounts; examines appropriation accounts & finance accounts; ensures money spent was authorized and intended purpose served |
| Estimates Committee | Standing | 30 members (all from LS); elected by LS; Chairperson from ruling party (convention) | Examines budget estimates; suggests economies; reports on alternative policies; examines whether money is well laid out |
| Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU) | Standing | 22 members (15 LS + 7 RS); elected by LS | Examines reports & accounts of public undertakings (PSUs); examines autonomy & efficiency of PSUs |
| Business Advisory Committee | Standing | 15 members (LS: 11 + RS: 4 or as nominated) | Regulates programme & time for government & private business in Parliament |
| Committee on Privileges | Standing | 15 members (10 LS + 5 RS) | Examines breach of privilege cases; recommends action |
| Rules Committee | Standing | 15 members (LS: 11 + RS: 4) | Considers matters of procedure & conduct of business |
| Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) | Ad hoc | Members from both Houses as decided by Parliament | Formed for specific investigation/inquiry; dissolved after completing task; e.g., 2G spectrum scam, stock market scam |
| Department-Related Standing Committees | Standing (24) | 31 members (21 LS + 10 RS); each ministry has a committee | Examine demands for grants; examine bills; annual reports of ministries; long-term policy documents |
| Step | Ordinary Bill | Money Bill |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Introduction | Either House; no prior permission needed | Only in Lok Sabha; requires President's recommendation |
| 2. First Reading | Title & objectives read; published in Gazette; NO discussion | Same as ordinary bill |
| 3. Second Reading | General discussion → Committee stage → Consideration stage (clause by clause); most important stage; amendments can be moved | Same stages; after passing by LS, sent to RS for 14 days (RS can discuss but cannot amend or reject) |
| 4. Third Reading | Final debate; vote on bill as a whole (or with amendments); cannot introduce new amendments at this stage | Same; only voting — no discussion |
| 5. Second House | Goes to other House; same 3 readings; if rejected or amendments not accepted → Joint Sitting (Art 108) for Ordinary Bill | RS can only discuss & suggest within 14 days; LS may accept/reject suggestions; if LS rejects or 14 days expire, bill deemed passed by both Houses |
| 6. Joint Sitting | Art 108: Speaker presides; only for Ordinary Bills; NOT for Money Bills or Constitutional Amendment Bills | NOT applicable for Money Bills |
| 7. President's assent | President can: (a) give assent (b) withhold assent (c) return once for reconsideration (suspensive veto) (d) pocket veto (not return for reconsideration indefinitely); only for Ordinary Bills | President MUST give assent; cannot return or pocket veto Money Bill (Art 111) |
| 8. Becomes Act | After President's assent; published in Gazette of India; becomes enforceable from date specified | Same — published in Gazette of India |
| Feature | India | United Kingdom | United States |
|---|---|---|---|
| Constitution | Written (longest in world) | Unwritten (based on conventions, statutes, precedents) | Written (oldest written, shortest) — rigid |
| Form of Government | Parliamentary (Westminster model) | Parliamentary (origin of Westminster model) | Presidential |
| Head of State | President (indirectly elected) | Monarch (King/Queen — hereditary) | President (directly elected) |
| Head of Government | Prime Minister (real executive) | Prime Minister (real executive) | President (real executive) |
| Cabinet responsibility | Collectively responsible to Lok Sabha | Collectively responsible to House of Commons | NOT responsible to Congress; independent |
| Legislature | Bicameral (LS + RS) | Bicameral (House of Commons + House of Lords) | Bicameral (House of Representatives + Senate) |
| Upper House | Rajya Sabha (indirectly elected; permanent) | House of Lords (mostly appointed; hereditary & life peers) | Senate (directly elected; fixed 6-year terms) |
| Lower House | Lok Sabha (directly elected; 5 years) | House of Commons (directly elected; 5 years) | House of Representatives (directly elected; 2 years) |
| Dissolution | PM can advise President to dissolve LS | PM can advise Monarch to dissolve Commons | President CANNOT dissolve Congress |
| Judicial review | Power of SC & HC (Art 13, 32, 226) | Limited (Parliamentary sovereignty — no written constitution) | Power of Supreme Court (Marbury v. Madison) |
| Fundamental Rights | Part III (Art 12-35) — justiciable | No codified FR; based on common law & statutes | Bill of Rights (first 10 Amendments) — justiciable |
| Federal structure | Federal with unitary bias | Unitary | Federal (dual sovereignty) |
| Citizenship | Single citizenship | Single citizenship | Dual citizenship (federal + state) |
| Emergency provisions | 3 types (Art 352, 356, 360) | No formal emergency provisions | No formal emergency; President can act in emergencies |
| Amendment | Art 368 (3 types of majority) | No formal amendment procedure; Parliamentary sovereignty | Art V — 2/3 Congress + 3/4 state legislatures (rigid) |
| Aspect | Details | |
|---|---|---|
| Constitution of SC | Chief Justice of India + 33 other judges (original strength was 7; increased over time by Parliament acts); total 34 including CJI | |
| Appointment | By warrant of President; CJI appointed by President; other judges appointed by President after consultation with CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges + Chief Justices of HC (NJAC struck down; Collegium system restored — 2015) | Collegium system: CJI + 4 senior-most judges recommend appointments |
| Qualifications | Citizen of India; must have been (a) Judge of HC for 5+ years OR (b) Advocate of HC for 10+ years OR (c) Distinguished jurist in opinion of President | |
| Term | 65 years age of retirement; can resign by writing to President; can be removed by impeachment | |
| Oath | Taken before President or person acting as President ("I will bear true faith & allegiance to the Constitution...") | |
| Seat | Delhi; can sit in other places with CJI approval |
| Type | Scope | Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| Original Jurisdiction | Disputes between (a) Government of India vs one or more States (b) Government of India & States on one side vs one or more States on other (c) Between two or more States | Art 131; exclusive; no appeal from SC in original jurisdiction cases; excludes private disputes |
| Writ Jurisdiction | Art 32 — Right to Constitutional Remedies | SC can issue 5 writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto; enforceable against any authority; broader than HC writ jurisdiction |
| Appellate Jurisdiction | Constitutional matters (appeal from HC when HC certifies substantial question of law — Art 132); Civil matters (HC certifies fit for appeal — Art 133); Criminal matters (HC certifies fit for appeal or death sentence — Art 134); Special leave petition (Art 136) | Art 136: SC can grant special leave to appeal from any judgment of any court/tribunal; discretionary; widest appellate power |
| Advisory Jurisdiction | President may refer question of law or fact of public importance to SC for its opinion | Art 143; opinion is not binding on President (but generally followed); can be refused by SC (e.g., Berubari Union case) |
| Review Jurisdiction | SC can review its own judgments | Art 137; based on error apparent on face of record; can review under specific grounds; review petition within 30 days of judgment (curative petition thereafter) |
| Judicial Review | Power to declare laws/unconstitutional acts as void if they violate Constitution | Basic feature; cannot be taken away; can review constitutional amendments (Kesavananda Bharati case); applies to Central & State laws, executive orders, constitutional amendments |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Number | 25 High Courts (some HC have jurisdiction over more than one state) |
| Constitution | Chief Justice + other judges as President may determine; strength varies (Allahabad HC largest with ~160 judges) |
| Appointment | By warrant of President; consultation with CJI + Governor + Chief Justice of that HC + other HC CJs (Collegium) |
| Qualifications | Citizen of India; (a) 10+ years judicial office OR (b) 10+ years advocate in HC; age no minimum specified |
| Term | 62 years age of retirement (earlier 60 — increased by 15th Amendment 1963) |
| Removal | Impeachment by Parliament (same as SC judges — Art 124(4)) |
| Jurisdiction — Original | In their territorial jurisdiction; writ jurisdiction (Art 226) — wider than SC (can issue to any person/authority, not just constitutional matters) |
| Jurisdiction — Appellate | Appeals from subordinate courts (civil & criminal); can hear appeals from tribunals |
| Jurisdiction — Supervisory | Art 227: supervises all courts & tribunals within its jurisdiction |
| Jurisdiction — Administrative | Art 229: control over subordinate judiciary (posting, promotion, leave, discipline) |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Concept | Litigation filed for the protection of public interest; not for personal gain; any public-spirited person can file |
| Origin in India | Justice P.N. Bhagwati & Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in late 1970s; Hussainara Khatoon case (1979) — first reported PIL |
| Who can file | Any public-spirited citizen or organization; even a postcard is enough; relaxed locus standi rules |
| Where to file | Supreme Court (Art 32) or High Court (Art 226) |
| Subject areas | Bonded labour, child labour, environmental pollution, consumer protection, education, health, corruption, gender justice, prisoners' rights |
| Guidelines | (1) Court must verify credentials of petitioner (2) Not for personal vendetta (3) Must raise genuine public interest (4) Court can appoint commission of inquiry (5) Respondent can be awarded costs for frivolous PIL (6) Ashok Kumar Thakur case guidelines |
| Appointment | Collegium Composition | Process |
|---|---|---|
| Chief Justice of India | Outgoing CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges | Senior-most SC judge recommended as next CJI by outgoing CJI; Convention: senior-most eligible judge is appointed; PM recommends to President; President appoints under warrant |
| SC Judges | CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges | CJI initiates proposal; Collegium deliberates; recommendation sent to Law Ministry; Ministry returns to Collegium if objection; Collegium can reiterate — then binding on government; President issues warrant |
| High Court Chief Justice | CJI + 2 senior-most SC judges + Chief Justice of that HC + 2 senior-most judges of that HC | Same process; Collegium recommends to government; government can return for reconsideration; if reiterated, binding |
| HC Judges | CJI + 2 senior-most SC judges + Chief Justice of that HC + 2 senior-most judges of that HC | Same process; Chief Justice of HC initiates; consulted with other judges; Collegium recommends |
| Transfer of HC judges | CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges | CJI initiates transfer proposal; Collegium recommends; transfer must be in public interest; Art 222(1): President can transfer; Presidential reference can be made to Collegium; Collegium recommendation is binding per Third Judges case (1998) |
| Case | Year | Ruling | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| First Judges Case (SP Gupta) | 1982 | CJI's recommendation is NOT binding; President has primacy in appointments; CJI only consults | Executive had final say; CJI's opinion was merely consultative; led to executive dominance in appointments |
| Second Judges Case (Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record) | 1993 | CJI's recommendation IS binding; Collegium of CJI + 2 senior-most judges; consultation must be effective, not mere formality | Shifted power from executive to judiciary; established Collegium system; executive can only return recommendation once |
| Third Judges Case (In Re Special Reference No. 1) | 1998 | Expanded Collegium to CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges; consultation with other judges must be in writing; Collegium recommendation is binding if reiterated | Strengthened Collegium; expanded its size; made consultation process more transparent; reiterated recommendation binding on government |
| Tribunal | Established Under | Jurisdiction | Appeal To |
|---|---|---|---|
| Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) | Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 (Art 323A) | Recruitment & service matters of Central government employees | Supreme Court (Art 136) under special leave |
| State Administrative Tribunals (SAT) | Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 | Recruitment & service matters of State government employees | High Court (Art 226/227) |
| National Green Tribunal (NGT) | National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 | Civil cases relating to environment; forest conservation; biodiversity; water & air pollution | Supreme Court within 90 days |
| National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) | Companies Act, 2013 | Company law matters: mergers, insolvency, winding up, oppression & mismanagement | National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) |
| Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) | Income Tax Act, 1961 | Appeals against income tax, wealth tax, gift tax orders | High Court (under Art 226/227) |
| Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT) | Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007 | Service matters of armed forces personnel | Supreme Court (Art 136) |
| National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC) | Consumer Protection Act, 2019 | Consumer complaints above Rs 1 crore | Supreme Court (Art 136) |
| Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB) | Trademark Act, 1999 | IPR disputes: trademarks, patents, copyrights, geographical indications | High Court (under Art 226) |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Constitution | Art 324; one of the few constitutional bodies not mentioned in Part VI (like UPSC, CAG) but established directly by Constitution |
| Composition | Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) + 2 Election Commissioners (originally only CEC; first two ECs appointed in 1989; removed in 1990; restored in 1993); appointed by President |
| Term | 6 years or age of 65, whichever is earlier; can resign by writing to President; removed like SC judge (impeachment) |
| Status | Independent constitutional body; CEC & ECs have equal salary; cannot be removed except on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity; conditions of service cannot be varied to their disadvantage after appointment |
| Functions | Superintendence, direction, and control of preparation of electoral rolls; conduct of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, President & VP; recognition of political parties; allotment of symbols; advisory functions under 10th Schedule (anti-defection); setting up of election expenditure observers; voter awareness programs |
| Budget & Staff | Budget voted by Parliament; Secretariat in New Delhi; Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) in each state; District Election Officers; Electoral Registration Officers |
| Model Code of Conduct | Issued by ECI; comes into force when election schedule is announced; applies to all candidates, parties, government (central & state); prevents misuse of power during election period |
| Step | Description | Authority |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Delimitation | Demarcating constituencies based on population; done by Delimitation Commission (Art 82-83); last done in 2008 (based on 2001 census); next after 2026 census (84th Amendment froze seats till 2026) | Delimitation Commission under Art 82 |
| 2. Electoral Roll | Preparation of voter list; eligible: citizen of India, age >= 18 years, ordinary resident of constituency; one voter one roll one constituency; updated annually | Electoral Registration Officer under ECI supervision |
| 3. Notification | President (LS) / Governor (State Assembly) issues notification; election schedule announced | President / Governor on ECI advice |
| 4. Nomination | Candidates file nomination papers; deposit security (Rs 25,000 LS / Rs 10,000 State Assembly); must be proposer, seconder, and 10 assentors | Returning Officer |
| 5. Scrutiny | Nomination papers examined; can be rejected for non-compliance; candidates can withdraw within prescribed time | Returning Officer |
| 6. Campaign | Minimum 14 days between last date of withdrawal and polling; must follow Model Code of Conduct; expenditure ceiling prescribed by ECI; candidates must submit expenditure accounts within 30 days | |
| 7. Polling | Secret ballot; EVMs used (since 2000); VVPAT machines (since 2017); polling booth manned by presiding officer | ECI; Polling officers |
| 8. Counting | Counting begins after polling ends; results declared by Returning Officer | Returning Officer |
| 9. Declaration | Winning candidate declared elected; certificate of election issued; defeated candidate can file election petition in High Court within 45 days | Returning Officer; disputes in HC (Art 329) |
| Provision | Detail |
|---|---|
| Added by | 52nd Amendment Act, 1985 (also called Defection Act); strengthened by 91st Amendment, 2003 |
| Grounds of defection | (1) Voluntarily giving up membership of political party (2) Voting or abstaining from voting contrary to party whip without prior permission (exception: if party condones within 15 days) |
| Exceptions | (1) If 2/3rd of legislators merge with another party (merger, not split) (2) If a person elected as Speaker/Chairman resigns from party (3) If a person is expelled from party and joins another after 6 months |
| Decision on disqualification | Speaker/Chairman of the House decides; based on opinion of Chairperson of RPA; must refer within 3 months; decision subject to judicial review (Kihoto Hollohan case 1993) |
| 91st Amendment changes | (1) One-third split changed to two-thirds merger (no more split) (2) Total number of ministers not exceeding 15% of total LS/Assembly strength (3) Member disqualified shall not hold any remunerative political post (4) Size of Council of Ministers restricted |
| Effect | Disqualified member cannot become minister; loses seat; cannot contest on original party ticket unless readmitted |
| PENALTY | If disqualification — seat becomes vacant; by-election may follow; person can contest independently |
| Reform | Committee / Source | Recommendation / Status |
|---|---|---|
| Lowering voting age | 61st Amendment (1989) | Reduced from 21 to 18 years (Art 326) — implemented |
| One person one post | 91st Amendment (2003) | A person cannot hold two offices of profit simultaneously — implemented |
| Anti-defection | 52nd Amendment (1985); 91st Amendment (2003) | 10th Schedule; 2/3 merger rule; restricted CoM size to 15% — implemented |
| State funding of elections | Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998); Law Commission (1999); NCRWC (2002) | Recommended partial state funding; NOT yet implemented in full — currently only in-kind facilities provided |
| NOTA (None of the Above) | SC in PUCL v. Union of India (2013) | Right to negative vote; EVMs to have NOTA button — implemented since 2013 |
| EVM & VVPAT | ECI; Supreme Court | EVMs used since 2000; VVPAT since 2017; SC directed counting of VVPAT slips — implemented |
| Electoral Bonds | Electoral Bonds Scheme (2018); scrapped by SC (2024) | Anonymous political donations via bonds; SC declared unconstitutional — SCRAPPED in Feb 2024 |
| Lokayukta for MPs | 2nd ARC; various bills | Establishment of Lokpal/Lokayukta — Lokpal established 2019 under 2013 Act; state Lokayuktas pending |
| Right to Reject | ECI; Law Commission | Voters should have right to reject all candidates (not just NOTA — which only registers disapproval); NOT yet implemented |
| Compulsory voting | Gujarat Local Authorities Laws (Amendment) Act, 2009 | Compulsory voting in Gujarat local body elections; has NOT been implemented due to legal issues |
| Political parties under RTI | CIC order (2013) | Political parties are public authorities under RTI — NOT yet implemented; parties have not complied |
| Ceiling on election expenditure | ECI (under RPA, 1951) | ECI prescribes maximum expenditure limits for LS & State Assembly elections; regularly revised — implemented |
| Internal democracy in parties | Law Commission; ECI | Requirement for internal elections, transparent functioning — partially regulated; ECI issues guidelines |
| Banning candidates with criminal cases | ECI; Supreme Court (Lily Thomas case 2013) | SC struck down Section 8(4) RPA — convicted MPs/MLAs immediately disqualified; NOTA option introduced |
| Provision | Section | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Qualification for voter | Section 19 | Citizen of India; age >= 18 years; ordinary resident; name in electoral roll; not disqualified under any law |
| Disqualification for membership | Section 8 | Conviction for certain offences (corruption, bribery, promoting enmity, terrorism, rape, etc.); imprisonment >= 2 years |
| Disqualification for government contract | Section 9 | Having interest in government contracts/subsidies |
| Disqualification for office of profit | Section 9A | Holding office of profit under Central/State government |
| Election petition | Section 80-90 | Any candidate or voter can file in High Court within 45 days of election result; on grounds of corrupt practice, improper rejection of nomination, illegal campaign, bribery, etc. |
| Corrupt practices | Section 123 | Bribery; undue influence; appeal to religion/race/caste/community; false statement about personal character; promoting enmity; publication of false statements; incurring expenditure beyond limit; booth capturing |
| Election offence | Section 125-136 | Bribery; undue influence; personation (impersonation); destruction of ballot papers; illegal hiring of vehicles; extends to candidates, agents, voters |
| Floor test | Relevant conventions | Governor must call for floor test within reasonable time to prove majority; imposed by SC in Bommai case; conducted in Assembly under Speaker's supervision |
| Aspect | Prohibition / Guideline |
|---|---|
| Party in power (ruling party) | Cannot use official machinery for election campaign; cannot announce new schemes/projects/financial grants; cannot advertise at government expense; cannot use government transport; ministers cannot combine official tour with electioneering |
| Political parties | Cannot appeal to caste/communal feelings; cannot offer bribes/lures; cannot use religious places for campaign; cannot use loudspeakers without permission; cannot disturb public meetings of other parties; cannot use arms/muscle power |
| Candidates | Must lodge account of election expenses within 30 days; cannot exceed expenditure limit; must declare assets/liabilities; cannot hire vehicles beyond prescribed limit; cannot use more than prescribed number of campaign workers; must remove all campaign material within 72 hours of polling |
| Polling day | No campaign on polling day and 48 hours before (silence period); no person can canvass near polling booth; no liquor distribution; no transport of voters to booth; no display of arms; only voters and election agents allowed near booth |
| Opinion polls | ECI guidelines on opinion polls; cannot conduct/publish opinion polls during 48 hours before end of polling in each phase; must disclose methodology, sample size, margin of error |
| Social media | ECI extended MCC to social media; pre-certification of political advertisements; no fake news; no paid news; parties must report social media expenditure; Internet & Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) cooperation required |
| Enforcement | ECI monitors; observers appointed; flying squads; static surveillance teams; video recording of sensitive areas; c-VIGIL app for complaints; violations can lead to registration of FIR; ECI can countermand election in extreme cases |
| Principle | Description | Mechanism in India |
|---|---|---|
| Transparency | Government decisions and actions should be open and understandable to citizens | RTI Act 2005; e-governance portals; online portals for services |
| Accountability | Public officials must answer for their actions and decisions | CAG (Comptroller & Auditor General); Parliament/CAG control; Judicial review; Lokpal/Lokayuktas |
| Responsiveness | Institutions & processes should serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe | Citizen's Charter; e-governance; Right to Public Services laws (state level) |
| Rule of Law | All persons and institutions are subject to fair laws that are equally enforced | Independent judiciary; Article 14; Rule of Law (Dicey's concept); Judicial review |
| Participation | Citizens should participate in decision-making processes | Panchayati Raj; Municipalities; public consultations; social audit; right to participation under RTI |
| Consensus oriented | Mediating different interests to reach broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the community | Committee system in Parliament; Inter-State Council; NITI Aayog; GST Council |
| Equity & Inclusiveness | All members of society should feel they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded | Reservations (SC/ST/OBC/Women); Fundamental Rights; DPSP; Social Justice |
| Effectiveness & Efficiency | Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making best use of resources | e-governance; Digital India; performance monitoring; NITI Aayog development indices |
| Initiative | Description | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Digital India | Flagship program to transform India into a digitally empowered society | Digital infrastructure, digital literacy, digital services delivery |
| e-District | District-level e-governance applications | Delivery of citizen services at district level |
| DigiLocker | Cloud-based platform for issuing & verifying documents | Paperless document storage & sharing |
| UMANG (Unified Mobile App) | Single platform for government services | Access 1200+ services from central & state governments |
| GeM (Government e-Marketplace) | Online procurement platform for government purchases | Transparent & efficient government procurement |
| Aadhaar | 12-digit unique identity number based on biometric data | Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), identity verification, service delivery |
| UPI (Unified Payments Interface) | Instant real-time payment system | Digital financial transactions, financial inclusion |
| CoWIN | Platform for COVID-19 vaccination | Vaccination registration, scheduling, certificate generation |
| myGov | Platform for citizen engagement | Crowdsourcing ideas, discussions, polls with government |
| e-Courts | Computerization of district & subordinate courts | Online case filing, tracking, judgments access |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Came into force | 15 June 2005; replaced Freedom of Information Act, 2002 |
| Objective | To promote transparency & accountability in working of public authorities |
| Applicable to | All constitutional authorities (executive, legislature, judiciary), bodies owned/controlled/financed by government, NGOs substantially funded by government; President, VP excluded; intelligence/security agencies excluded (matters of sovereignty/integrity) |
| Information defined | Any material in any form (records, documents, emails, opinions, advice, press releases, circulars, orders, logbooks, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models, data held in electronic form) |
| Exemptions | Information prejudicial to sovereignty & security, strategic/scientific/economic interests, Cabinet papers, trade secrets, fiduciary relationship, personal information (unless larger public interest), information received in confidence from foreign government, investigation-related information |
| Procedure | Application to Public Information Officer (PIO) in writing/electronic; response within 30 days (48 hours for life/liberty); fees as prescribed; appeal to First Appellate Authority within 30 days; second appeal to Information Commission within 90 days |
| Information Commission | Central Information Commission (CIC): Chief Information Commissioner + up to 10 Information Commissioners; State Information Commissions similar |
| Penalties | Rs 250/day up to Rs 25,000 for PIO not providing information without reasonable cause; disciplinary action possible; recommendation by CIC/SIC |
| Record retention | Every public authority must maintain records, catalogued, indexed, and published (Section 4(1)(b)) — suo motu disclosure mandatory |
| Body | Constitutional Basis | Key Functions |
|---|---|---|
| National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) | Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (statutory body); headquartered in Delhi | Inquire into violations of human rights or negligence by public servants; intervene in court proceedings involving HR; visit jails; review constitutional & legal safeguards; promote research & awareness; recommend compensation |
| State Human Rights Commission | Same Act, 1993; constituted by state government | Same functions at state level; Chairman must be retired HC judge |
| National Commission for Women (NCW) | NCW Act, 1990 | Review legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial measures; investigate complaints; advise government on policy matters; take suo motu cognizance |
| National Commission for SC (NCSC) | Art 338; constitutional body | Monitor safeguards for SC; investigate complaints; advise President on SC welfare; submit annual reports |
| National Commission for ST (NCST) | Art 338A; constitutional body (85th Amendment) | Same as NCSC but for Scheduled Tribes; separate commission since 2003 |
| National Commission for Backward Classes | Art 338B; constitutional body (102nd Amendment, 2018) | Monitor safeguards for SEBC (Socially & Educationally Backward Classes); advise President & government |
| National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) | Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005 | Ensure children's rights as per Constitution & UN Convention on Rights of the Child; inquire into complaints; review policies |
| Body | Article | Appointed By | Removal | Key Function |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UPSC | Art 315–323 | President | By President (address to Parliament) | Recruitment to All-India Services & Central Services; advise government on recruitment, promotions, disciplinary matters |
| SPSC | Art 315–323 | Governor | By President (address to State Legislature) | Recruitment to State Services; similar functions at state level |
| Finance Commission | Art 280 | President | No fixed removal | Distribution of taxes between Centre & States; grants-in-aid; every 5 years |
| Election Commission | Art 324 | President | Like SC judge (impeachment) | Conduct & supervise elections; recognition of parties; Model Code |
| CAG | Art 148–151 | President (warrant) | Like SC judge (impeachment) | Audit of government accounts; CEC reports to Parliament |
| NCSC | Art 338 | President | By President (address to Parliament) | Monitor safeguards for SC; investigate complaints; advise government |
| NCST | Art 338A | President | By President (address to Parliament) | Monitor safeguards for ST; investigate complaints; advise government |
| NCBC | Art 338B | President | By President (address to Parliament) | Monitor safeguards for SEBC; welfare of OBCs |
| National Human Rights Commission | PHRA, 1993 | President | By President (address to Parliament) | Inquire into HR violations; visit jails; advise government |
| Attorney General of India | Art 76 | President | Pleasure of President | Chief legal advisor to Government of India; can appear in courts on behalf of government |
| Advocate General | Art 165 | Governor | Pleasure of Governor | Chief legal advisor to State Government |
| Article | Subject | Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Name & Territory | India shall be a Union of States; names of states in 1st Schedule; territory can be altered by Parliament (not state consent needed) |
| 2 | Admission of new states | Parliament may admit new states; terms and conditions as it thinks fit |
| 3 | Formation of new states | Parliament can form new states, alter boundaries, change names by simple majority (not Art 368) |
| 4 | Laws made under Art 2-3 | Such laws are not amendments under Art 368 |
| 5–11 | Citizenship | Citizenship at commencement of Constitution; rights of certain migrants; voluntary acquisition of citizenship of foreign state |
| 12–35 | Fundamental Rights | Art 12: State definition; Art 13: Laws inconsistent with FR void; Art 14-32: Individual FR |
| 13 | Laws inconsistent with FR | All pre-constitutional laws void to extent inconsistent with FR; all future laws must comply; Art 13(4): amendment under Art 368 is not "law" under Art 13 (Kesavananda case) |
| 14–18 | Right to Equality | Equality before law; no discrimination; equal opportunity; untouchability abolished; no titles |
| 19–22 | Right to Freedom | Six freedoms; protection against conviction; life & liberty; arrest safeguards |
| 23–24 | Right against Exploitation | No forced labour; no child labour below 14 |
| 25–28 | Right to Freedom of Religion | Freedom of conscience; manage religious affairs; no religious tax; no compulsory religious instruction |
| 29–30 | Cultural & Educational Rights | Minority protection; establish & administer educational institutions |
| 32 | Right to Constitutional Remedies | Heart & Soul of Constitution; SC can issue 5 writs; cannot be suspended except during Emergency |
| 36–51 | Directive Principles (DPSP) | State policy guidelines; non-justiciable; socialist, Gandhian, liberal-intellectual |
| 51A | Fundamental Duties | 11 duties; 42nd Amendment added; 86th Amendment added education duty; citizens only; non-justiciable |
| 52–62 | President | Qualifications, election, term, powers, oath, impeachment; Art 53: Executive power; Art 56: Term; Art 61: Impeachment |
| 63–71 | Vice-President | Ex-officio RS Chairman; election; term; functions |
| 74 | Council of Ministers | Aid and advise President; PM + other Ministers; collective responsibility to LS |
| 78 | Duties of PM | Communicate all decisions of CoM to President; furnish information as President may call for |
| 79–122 | Parliament | Constitution, officers, sessions, procedures, privileges, legislative process; Art 80: RS composition; Art 81: LS composition; Art 107: Bills; Art 110: Money Bill; Art 112: Budget |
| 123 | Ordinance making power | President can promulgate ordinance when Parliament not in session; must be approved within 6 weeks of reassembly |
| 124–147 | Supreme Court | Constitution, appointment, jurisdiction, powers; Art 124: CJI + judges; Art 131: Original jurisdiction; Art 132-134: Appellate; Art 136: Special leave; Art 137: Review |
| 148–151 | CAG | Comptroller & Auditor General of India; duties, powers; reports to President; audit of accounts |
| 153–167 | State Executive | Governor; appointment, powers, functions; Chief Minister; State Council of Ministers |
| 168–177 | State Legislature | Constitution of State Legislatures; Legislative Assembly & Council (bicameral/unicameral) |
| 214–231 | High Courts | Constitution, appointment, jurisdiction, powers of High Courts |
| 232–243 | Inter-State Relations | Inter-State disputes; Inter-State Council (Art 263); water disputes; coordination |
| 243–243O | Panchayats | 73rd Amendment; 3-tier system; Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad |
| 243P–243ZG | Municipalities | 74th Amendment; Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation |
| 245–255 | Distribution of Legislative Powers | Parliament & State Legislatures; Union List, State List, Concurrent List; residuary with Union (Art 248) |
| 256–263 | Administrative Relations | Obligation of states; Union directions; inter-state disputes; Inter-State Council |
| 268–271 | Distribution of Revenues | Taxes levied & collected; GST Council (Art 279A); Finance Commission (Art 280) |
| 300–307 | Property, Contracts, Suits | Suits & proceedings; property of the Union; right to property removed from FR (44th Amendment) — now legal right under Art 300A |
| 324–329 | Elections | Election Commission; superintendence of elections; no interference in electoral matters by courts (Art 329(b)) |
| 330–342 | Reservation | Art 330: LS reservation for SC/ST; Art 332: State Assembly; Art 335: claims of SC/ST to services; Art 340: backward classes commission; Art 341-342: SC/ST lists (Presidential order) |
| 343–351 | Official Language | Official language of Union = Hindi in Devanagari script; English for 15 years (extended indefinitely); state can adopt any language; 8th Schedule: 22 languages |
| 352 | National Emergency | War, external aggression, armed rebellion; requires Cabinet advice + Parliamentary approval |
| 356 | President's Rule (State Emergency) | Failure of constitutional machinery in state; Parliament takes over state legislation |
| 360 | Financial Emergency | Threat to financial stability; never used |
| 368 | Amendment Procedure | Three types: simple majority, special majority, special majority + state ratification |
| 370 | Special Status of J&K | Temporary provision; autonomous status of J&K; revoked by 2019 orders and Constitution (Application to J&K) Order, 2019 + J&K Reorganization Act, 2019 — split into UTs of J&K and Ladakh |
| 371 | Special Provisions for States | Art 371A(Nagaland), 371B(Manipur), 371C(Assam), 371D/E(AP/Telangana), 371F(Sikkim), 371G(Mizoram), 371H(Arunachal), 371J(Karnataka-Hyderabad-Karnataka) |
| 392 | Power of President | President can make orders to bring Constitution into force; adapt existing laws |
| 436–439 | Transitional Provisions | Temporary provisions for Part B states; abolished 1st & 2nd schedules of former Part B |
| 444 | Amendment of Schedule VI | Special procedure for amending provisions related to tribal areas in NE states |
| Amendment | Year | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added 9th Schedule (land reform laws beyond judicial review); reasonable restrictions on FR; added Art 15(4) for SC/ST reservation; validated agrarian reform laws |
| 7th | 1956 | States Reorganization — abolished Class A, B, C, D states; created 14 states & 6 UTs; introduced 7th Schedule (3 lists) |
| 42nd | 1976 | Mini-Constitution — added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; Fundamental Duties (Art 51A — 10 duties); amended FR & DPSP; gave primacy to DPSP over FR; Emergency provisions strengthened; term of LS & Assemblies extended from 5 to 6 years during Emergency (later reversed by 44th) |
| 44th | 1978 | Post-Emergency corrections — removed Right to Property as FR (now Art 300A legal right); reversed many 42nd Amendment changes; replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion" for Emergency (Art 352); election of PM by Lok Sabha members; EC removed power to disqualify defectors; restored some judicial review powers; term of LS/Assembly back to 5 years |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-Defection Law — added 10th Schedule; disqualification on ground of defection; voluntary resignation, voting against whip |
| 61st | 1989 | Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years (Art 326); extended reservation for SC/ST & Anglo-Indian by 10 years (to 2000) |
| 73rd | 1992 | Panchayati Raj — Part IX (Art 243–243O); 3-tier system; elections every 5 years; reservation for SC/ST/Women (1/3rd); 29 subjects in 11th Schedule; State Election Commission; State Finance Commission |
| 74th | 1992 | Municipalities — Part IX-A (Art 243P–243ZG); 3 types: Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation; reservation for SC/ST/Women; 18 subjects in 12th Schedule; District Planning Committees; Ward Committees |
| 86th | 2002 | Education as fundamental right — added Art 21A (free & compulsory education for 6-14 years); made Art 45 a DPSP (early childhood care); added 11th Fundamental Duty (education duty for parents) |
| 91st | 2003 | Anti-defection strengthened — changed 2/3 split to 2/3 merge; limited Council of Ministers to 15% of total membership; barred defectors from ministerial positions; made one person one post mandatory (not applicable in NE states) |
| 100th | 2015 | India Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement — exchange of enclaves; amended 1st Schedule (territorial changes); Constitution (100th Amendment) Act, 2015 |
| 102nd | 2018 | National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) made constitutional body — Art 338B; President to specify socially & educationally backward classes — Art 342A; removed power of states to identify OBCs (restored by 105th Amendment) |
| 103rd | 2019 | EWS Reservation — introduced Art 15(6) and Art 16(6): up to 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections in educational institutions and public employment; excluded SC/ST/OBC; based on income & asset criteria |
| 104th | 2020 | Extended reservation for SC/ST in Lok Sabha & State Assemblies by 10 years (to 2030); removed reservation for Anglo-Indians in LS & Assemblies |
| 105th | 2021 | Restored power of states to identify and maintain their own list of OBCs; overturned 102nd Amendment's restriction on states; NCBC advisory role only for state OBC lists |
| Case | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| A.K. Gopalan | 1950 | Art 21 means procedure by law of State; later overruled in Maneka Gandhi |
| Kesavananda Bharati | 1973 | Basic Structure Doctrine — Constitution has basic features that cannot be amended; Preamble is part of Constitution |
| Maneka Gandhi | 1978 | Art 21 procedure must be just, fair & reasonable; expanded scope of Art 14, 19, 21; overruled Gopalan |
| Minerva Mills | 1980 | Balance between FR & DPSP is basic structure; FR cannot be abrogated; limited scope of 42nd Amendment |
| Golaknath | 1967 | Parliament cannot amend FR; later overruled in Kesavananda Bharati (amendment power upheld) |
| SR Bommai | 1994 | Art 356 subject to judicial review; secularism is basic feature; misuse of Art 356 unconstitutional |
| S.R. Bommai (Art 356) | 1994 | President's Rule must have floor test; satisfaction of President is justiciable |
| Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan | 1997 | Guidelines for prevention of sexual harassment at workplace; law later enacted (2013) |
| PUCL v. Union of India | 2013 | Right to cast negative vote — NOTA (None of the Above) introduced in EVMs |
| KS Puttaswamy | 2017 | Right to Privacy is a fundamental right under Art 21 (autonomous right) |
| SCAoRA v. Union of India (NJAC) | 2015 | Struck down 99th Amendment & NJAC Act; restored Collegium system for judicial appointments |
| Navtej Singh Johar | 2018 | Decriminalized Section 377 IPC (consensual homosexual acts); upheld right to privacy & dignity |
| Office | Article | Appointment | Term |
|---|---|---|---|
| President | 52 | Electoral College (indirect) | 5 years |
| Vice-President | 63 | Parliament members (indirect) | 5 years |
| PM | 75 | President (on majority support) | Not fixed |
| CJI | 124 | President (Collegium) | 65 years |
| Governor | 153 | President | 5 years |
| CAG | 148 | President (warrant) | 6 years or 65 |
| Attorney General | 76 | President | Pleasure of President |
| UPSC Chairman | 316 | President | 6 years or 65 |
| CEC | 324 | President | 6 years or 65 |
| Finance Commission Chairman | 280 | President | Determined by President |
| Part | Articles | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| I | 1–4 | Union & its Territory |
| II | 5–11 | Citizenship |
| III | 12–35 | Fundamental Rights |
| IV | 36–51 | Directive Principles of State Policy |
| IVA | 51A | Fundamental Duties |
| V | 52–78 | Union Executive (President, VP, PM, CoM, AG) |
| VI | 79–122 | Parliament (LS, RS, legislative process) |
| VII | 123–128 | Executive Powers (Ordinances) |
| VIII | 148–151 | Comptroller & Auditor General |
| IX | 152–167 | State Executive (Governor, CM, CoM) |
| X | 168–177 | State Legislature |
| XI | 178–188 | State Legislative (HC provisions) |
| XII | 214–231 | High Courts in the States |
| XIII | 232–243 | Inter-State Relations, Commissions |
| XIV | 245–255 | Distribution of Legislative Powers |
| XV | 256–263 | Administrative Relations |
| XVI | 264–300A | Finance, Property, Contracts, Suits |
| XVII | 301–307 | Trade, Commerce & Intercourse |
| XVIII | 308–313 | Tribunals (under 42nd Amendment) |
| XIX | 314–323A | Elections (originally); now renumbered |
| XX | 324–329A | Amendment of Constitution |
| XXI | 324–329A | Election Commission |
| XXII | 330–342 | Special Provisions (SC/ST/OBC, etc.) |
| XXIII | 343–351 | Official Language |
| XXIV | 352–360 | Emergency Provisions |
| XXV | 368 | Amendment of the Constitution |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Art 343 | Official language of Union = Hindi (Devanagari script); form of numerals = international form; Parliament can prescribe use of English for official purposes |
| Art 344 | Commission and Committee of Parliament on Official Language — to recommend progressive use of Hindi; restrict use of English; language for Union, State, SC, HC |
| Art 345 | State can adopt Hindi or any language used in that state as official language; requires President's permission |
| Art 346 | Official language for communication between states and between state & Centre; Hindi or English |
| Art 347 | President can recognize any language as official language of a state on demand by substantial proportion of population |
| Art 348 | Language of Supreme Court and High Court = English; Governor (with President's consent) can authorize use of Hindi or state language in HC proceedings; NOT for SC |
| Art 349 | Special provision for linguistic minorities; during first 15 years; Hindi not to be used in state against will of legislature |
| Art 350 | Right to submit representation to government in any language used in the state or Union |
| Art 350A | President shall issue direction to states for providing primary education in mother tongue to linguistic minorities |
| Art 350B | Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities — appointed by President; investigates matters related to safeguards for linguistic minorities; submits annual reports to President |
| Art 351 | Union duty to promote Hindi — develop as medium of expression; enrich by incorporating from other Indian languages; Hindi as official language but not imposing on non-Hindi speaking states |
| 8th Schedule | 22 languages recognized: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu. Originally 14 languages; additions over time: Sindhi (1967), Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali (1992), Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali (2003). 104th Amendment removed 22 languages from requiring no minimum number of speakers for recognition. |
| Official Language Act, 1963 | Continued use of English for official purposes of Union & Parliament indefinitely (beyond 1965); Hindi & English both are official languages for Central Government; 3-language formula adopted |
| 3-Language Formula | First language (mother tongue/regional), Second language (Hindi in non-Hindi states / regional in Hindi states), Third language (English or any other Indian language). Modified and varies by state; NEP 2020 proposes flexibility. |
| Article | Subject | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Art 5 | Citizenship at commencement | Domicile + born in India OR either parent born in India OR ordinarily resident for 5 years immediately before commencement (26 Jan 1950) |
| Art 6 | Rights of migrants from Pakistan | Person migrated from Pakistan; either parent/grandparent born in India; ordinary resident since 1948; must register within 6 months of coming to India |
| Art 7 | Rights of migrants to Pakistan & return | Migrated to Pakistan after 1 March 1947 but returned to India under permit for resettlement; need 6 months residence |
| Art 8 | Rights of Indian diaspora | Person of Indian origin residing outside India (in any country); can register as citizen at Indian diplomatic/consular mission |
| Art 9 | Voluntary acquisition of foreign citizenship | Ceases to be Indian citizen if voluntarily acquires citizenship of a foreign state; no formal renunciation needed |
| Art 10 | Continuance of citizenship | Every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen shall continue as citizen subject to law made by Parliament |
| Art 11 | Parliament's power to regulate | Parliament can regulate citizenship by law; Citizenship Act, 1955 enacted under this; can prescribe acquisition/termination of citizenship |
| Union List (97 subjects) | State List (66 subjects) | Concurrent List (47 subjects) |
|---|---|---|
| Defence; Foreign Affairs; War & Peace | Public Order; Police; Administration of Justice | Criminal Law; Criminal Procedure; Civil Procedure |
| Banking; Insurance; RBI; Currency | Prisons; Reformatories; Borstal institutions | Marriage & Divorce; Adoption; Succession (personal law) |
| Atomic Energy; Railways; Airways; Shipping | Public Health & Sanitation; Hospitals | Education; Technical & Medical education |
| Inter-State Trade & Commerce | Agriculture; Land; Land Revenue | Labour; Trade Unions; Social Security |
| Citizenship; Naturalization; Passports | Land Improvement; Agricultural Improvement | Factories; Industrial Disputes; Trade Unions |
| Post & Telegraph; Telephones; Wireless | Water; Water supplies; Irrigation & canals | Electricity; Newspapers; Books |
| Income Tax; Corporation Tax; Customs | Excise on alcohol; Land Revenue; Stamp duty | Economic & Social Planning; Population control |
| Supreme Court; High Courts; Tribunals | State Public Services; State PSC | Forests; Protection of wild animals & birds |
| Census; Elections; Delimitation | Local Government; Panchayats; Municipalities | Price control; Food adulteration |
| Parliamentary privileges; Contempt of Parliament | State legislatures and their privileges | Prevention of cruelty to animals; Livestock improvement |
| Piracy & crimes at sea | Inheritance of agricultural land | Trade & commerce within state; weights & measures |
| Acquisition & requisitioning of property | Taxes on agricultural income; land revenue | Vital statistics; registration of births & deaths |
| Trade marks; Patents; Copyrights | Taxes on professions, trades, callings, employments | Adulteration of foodstuffs & other goods |
| Foreign loans; Audit of government accounts | Betting & gambling; taxes on betting | Fishing; fisheries beyond territorial waters |
| All-India Services; UPSC | Lotteries; taxes on entertainment | Social security; social insurance; unemployment |
| Veto Type | Ordinary Bill | Money Bill | Constitutional Amendment Bill |
|---|---|---|---|
| Absolute Veto | Can withhold assent — bill ends (used once by President Venkataraman in 1991 on Indian Post Office Amendment Bill) | Not available — must give assent | Not available — must give assent |
| Suspensive Veto | Can return bill once for reconsideration; if Parliament passes again (with or without changes), President MUST give assent | Not available | Not available |
| Pocket Veto | Can keep bill pending indefinitely without returning it (President has no time limit to act); used by President Zail Singh for Postal Amendment Bill (1986) | Not available — must give assent within stipulated time (no pocket veto) | Not available — must give assent |
| Qualified Veto | Not applicable for Indian President | Not available | Not available — no qualified veto in Indian Constitution |
| Can return for reconsideration? | YES — only once | NO — cannot return | NO — cannot return |
| Must give assent ultimately? | YES — if passed again by Parliament | YES — must always give assent | YES — must always give assent |
| Committee/Commission | Year | Subject | Key Recommendations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sarkaria Commission | 1988 | Centre-State relations | Strong Centre needed; Inter-State Council permanent body;Governor should not be dismissed without consulting CM; concurrent list needs restructuring |
| Rajamannar Committee | 1969 | Centre-State relations (Tamil Nadu) | Recommended autonomous states; All-India Services should be scrapped; more powers to states |
| Punchhi Commission | 2010 | Centre-State relations | Local emergencies under Governor; Cooperative federalism; Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) autonomy; Governor should not be given 5-year fixed term |
| National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) | 2002 | Constitutional review | No review of basic structure; fixed term for LS/Assembly; need for Right to Education; Lokpal; changes to Art 356 procedure |
| 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC) | 2005-09 | Public administration reforms | E-governance; citizen-centric administration; Lokpal & Lokayuktas; RTI Act improvements; ethics in governance; disaster management |
| Indrajit Gupta Committee | 1998 | State funding of elections | Recommended partial state funding; not full funding; political parties should be transparent |
| Dinesh Goswami Committee | 1990 | Electoral reforms | Electoral Commission should be 3-member body; state funding of elections; disqualification for government contracts; government advertisements during elections prohibited |
| Law Commission (170th Report) | 1999 | Electoral reforms | State funding of elections; independent candidates barred; independent EC for state elections |
| Tarkunde Committee | 1975 | Electoral reforms | Right to information for voters; state funding; Janata government implemented some |
| Justice Verma Committee | 2013 | Crime against women (after Nirbhaya case) | Criminal law amendments; sexual assault definition; stricter punishment; police reforms; procedural reforms |
| Concept A | Concept B | Key Difference |
|---|---|---|
| Parliamentary form | Presidential form | Executive responsible to legislature (UK/India) vs executive NOT responsible to legislature (USA); nominal head vs real head; dissolution of legislature possible vs not; collective responsibility vs individual responsibility |
| Rajya Sabha | Lok Sabha | Permanent vs dissolved every 5 years; indirectly elected vs directly elected; represents states vs represents people; Money Bill restriction vs Money Bill origin; No-Confidence Motion not available vs available |
| Fundamental Rights | DPSP | Justiciable vs non-justiciable; promotes political democracy vs social democracy; inspired by USA vs Ireland; negative vs positive rights; enforceable by courts vs directory in nature |
| Directive Principles | Fundamental Duties | Non-justiciable guidelines for state vs moral obligations of citizens; Art 36-51 vs Art 51A; inspired by Ireland vs USSR; welfare state vs responsible citizenship |
| National Emergency | President's Rule | Art 352 vs Art 356; affects whole country vs specific state; FR suspended vs state legislature dissolved; war/aggression/rebellion vs failure of constitutional machinery |
| Certiorari | Prohibition | Issued AFTER order (to quash) vs BEFORE order (to prevent); higher court vs lower court; quash ultra vires act vs prevent exceeding jurisdiction |
| Preamble amended by | Constitution amended by | Preamble by 42nd Amendment (1976); Constitution by Art 368 (3 types); Preamble IS part of Constitution but amendment must not destroy basic structure |
| Cabinet Minister | Minister of State | Member of Cabinet (decision-making body) vs may/may not be Cabinet member; attends Cabinet meetings vs may not attend; higher rank vs lower rank |
| Adjournment Motion | Calling Attention | LS only vs both Houses; leads to adjournment vs does NOT adjourn; needs 50 members support vs no specific number; on urgent public importance vs on urgent public importance of minister's explanation |
| CAG of India | Accountant General | Constitutional body (Art 148) vs statutory; audits Union accounts vs assists CAG; reports to Parliament vs reports to CAG; head of audit vs subordinate office |
| Type | Definition | When Used | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Simple Majority | Majority of members present and voting | Ordinary bills, no-confidence motion, adjournment motion, creation of new states | Members who participate in voting; not total membership |
| Effective Majority | Total membership minus vacancies | Removal of Speaker/Deputy Speaker (Art 94, 104) | All vacancies counted; not based on present members |
| Absolute Majority | More than 50% of total membership | Not a standalone requirement in Constitution | Elected + nominated members; all vacancies counted |
| Special Majority | Majority of total membership + 2/3 of members present and voting | Constitutional Amendment bills under Art 368 (most provisions) | Used for most amendments: FR, DPSP, election of President, distribution of powers |
| Special Majority + State ratification | Special majority in Parliament + ratification by at least half of State Legislatures (simple majority) | Amendments affecting federal structure: election of President, SC/HC, 7th Schedule, representation in Parliament | States must ratify; no time limit prescribed |
| Term | Definition | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Office of Profit | Any post under Central/State government carrying remuneration; disqualifies from being MP/MLA unless exempted | Art 102(1)(a), Art 191(1)(a) |
| Quorum | Minimum members required for proceedings; 1/10th of total membership | Art 100(3), Art 189(3) |
| Hung Parliament | No single party or coalition has absolute majority; President exercises discretion in appointing PM | Constitutional convention |
| Floor Test | Process of proving majority in legislature; Governor may direct CM to prove majority | SC ruling; Art 175(2) |
| Collective Responsibility | Council of Ministers collectively responsible to Lok Sabha; no-confidence = entire CoM resigns | Art 75(3), Art 164(2) |
| Sovereignty | Supreme authority; internal supremacy + external independence | Preamble |
| Republic | Head of state elected (not hereditary); political power from people | Preamble; Art 52 |
| Secularism | State treats all religions equally; no official religion; positive secularism | Preamble; Art 25-28, Art 14-15 |
| Article Range | Subject | Quick Tag |
|---|---|---|
| Art 1–4 | Union & its Territory | Territory of India |
| Art 5–11 | Citizenship | Who is an Indian? |
| Art 12–35 | Fundamental Rights | Justiciable rights; Part III |
| Art 36–51 | Directive Principles | Non-justiciable guidelines; Part IV |
| Art 51A | Fundamental Duties | 11 duties; Part IVA |
| Art 52–78 | Union Executive | President, VP, PM, CoM, AG |
| Art 79–122 | Parliament | LS, RS, proceedings, privileges |
| Art 123–137 | Executive & Judicial Powers | Ordinances, SC jurisdiction |
| Art 148–151 | CAG | Comptroller & Auditor General |
| Art 153–167 | State Executive | Governor, CM, CoM, AG |
| Art 168–177 | State Legislature | SLA, SLC, proceedings |
| Art 214–231 | High Courts | Constitution, jurisdiction, powers |
| Art 243–243O | Panchayats | 73rd Amendment; 3-tier system |
| Art 243P–243ZG | Municipalities | 74th Amendment; urban local bodies |
| Art 245–255 | Distribution of Legislative Powers | Union, State, Concurrent lists |
| Art 324–329 | Elections | Election Commission |
| Art 343–351 | Official Language | Hindi, English, 8th Schedule |
| Art 352, 356, 360 | Emergency Provisions | National, State, Financial |
| Art 368 | Constitutional Amendment | Procedure; 3 types of majority |