NCERT English Grammar (Class 6–12) Cheatsheet

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Parts of Speech

CLASS 6–8

Overview — The 8 Parts of Speech

NounA word that names a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., Rahul, Delhi, book, happiness)

PronounA word used in place of a noun (e.g., he, she, they, it)

AdjectiveA word that describes or modifies a noun (e.g., tall, blue, beautiful)

VerbA word that shows an action or state of being (e.g., run, eat, is, think)

AdverbA word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb (e.g., quickly, very, softly)

PrepositionA word placed before a noun/pronoun to show its relation (e.g., in, on, at, with)

ConjunctionA word that joins words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, because)

InterjectionA word that expresses sudden feeling or emotion (e.g., Wow!, Alas!, Oh!)

Noun — Types & Classification

Type	Definition	Examples
Common Noun	General name for a person, place, or thing	boy, girl, city, river, book, dog
Proper Noun	Specific name — always capitalized	Rahul, India, Ganga, Monday, January, Taj Mahal
Collective Noun	Names a group/collection	army, flock, team, herd, bunch, class, jury
Abstract Noun	Name of a quality, state, or feeling (cannot touch)	honesty, courage, love, anger, freedom, beauty
Material Noun	Name of a material or substance	gold, silver, iron, wood, water, milk, rice
Countable Noun	Can be counted — singular/plural	one book, two cats, three boys
Uncountable Noun	Cannot be counted directly	water, rice, knowledge, furniture, advice, information

Noun — Gender

Masculine	Feminine	Common	Neuter
boy	girl	baby	table
father	mother	parent	chair
brother	sister	cousin	book
king	queen	ruler	car
lion	lioness	child	stone
hero	heroine	teacher	water
actor	actress	doctor	air
cock	hen	friend	tree

Noun — Number & Case

SingularRefers to one (e.g., cat, box, child, man)

PluralRefers to more than one (e.g., cats, boxes, children, men)

Nominative caseSubject of the verb (e.g., Ram gave a gift)

Objective caseObject of verb/preposition (e.g., gift to Ram)

Possessive caseShows ownership (e.g., Ram's book, boys' team)

Vocative caseUsed to address someone (e.g., Come here, Ram)

Irregular pluralsman→men, woman→women, child→children, foot→feet, tooth→teeth, mouse→mice, ox→oxen, person→people

Pronoun — Types & Forms

Type	Definition	Examples
Personal (Subject)	Used as subject of verb	I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Personal (Object)	Used as object of verb/preposition	me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive (Adjective)	Shows ownership before noun	my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Possessive (Pronoun)	Replaces possessive + noun	mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
Reflexive	Reflects back to subject	myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves
Demonstrative	Points to specific things	this, that, these, those
Relative	Relates a clause to noun	who, whom, whose, which, that
Interrogative	Used to ask questions	who, whom, whose, which, what
Indefinite	Refers to non-specific things	someone, anyone, nothing, everybody, each, few, many

Personal Pronoun Declension Table

Person	Subjective	Objective	Possessive (Adj)	Possessive (Pron)	Reflexive
1st Singular	I	me	my	mine	myself
2nd Singular	you	you	your	yours	yourself
3rd (Masc)	he	him	his	his	himself
3rd (Fem)	she	her	her	hers	herself
3rd (Neuter)	it	it	its	its	itself
1st Plural	we	us	our	ours	ourselves
2nd Plural	you	you	your	yours	yourselves
3rd Plural	they	them	their	theirs	themselves

Adjective — Types

Type	Definition	Examples
Descriptive/Qualitative	Describes quality of noun	tall, beautiful, clever, honest, brave
Demonstrative	Points to which noun	this book, that girl, these boys, those flowers
Quantitative	Shows quantity/number	some, many, few, much, several, all, enough, no
Possessive	Shows possession	my book, your pen, his car, their house
Distributive	Refers to each individual	each, every, either, neither, one of the boys
Proper	Formed from proper noun	Indian culture, Shakespearean drama, Victorian era
Numeral (Cardinal)	Exact number	one, two, twenty, hundred
Numeral (Ordinal)	Position/order	first, second, third, last

Adjective — Degrees of Comparison

Positive	Comparative	Superlative	Rule
tall	taller	tallest	Short adj: add -er / -est
large	larger	largest	e-ending: add -r / -st
big	bigger	biggest	Short + CVC: double last letter + -er/-est
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful	Long adj: more/most before
good	better	best	Irregular
bad	worse	worst	Irregular
many/much	more	most	Irregular
little	less	least	Irregular
far	farther/further	farthest/furthest	Irregular

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Order of Adjectives: When multiple adjectives modify one noun, follow this order: Opinion → Size → Age → Shape → Colour → Origin → Material → Purpose. Example: “a beautiful small old round red Indian wooden chair”

Verb — Types & Forms

Type	Definition	Examples
Transitive	Needs an object to complete meaning	He <u>reads</u> a book. She <u>ate</u> an apple.
Intransitive	Does not need an object	He <u>sleeps</u>. The baby <u>cries</u>. Birds <u>fly</u>.
Auxiliary (Primary)	Help main verb — be, do, have	He <u>is</u> running. I <u>have</u> eaten. She <u>does</u> not know.
Modal	Expresses modality — can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must	He <u>can</u> swim. You <u>must</u> try.
Linking	Connects subject to complement	She <u>is</u> happy. He <u>became</u> a doctor. It <u>smells</u> good.
Finite	Shows tense, person, number	He <u>goes</u>, She <u>went</u>, They <u>are going</u>
Non-finite: Infinitive	Base form (to + V1)	to <u>eat</u>, to <u>play</u>, to <u>be</u> or not <u>to be</u>
Non-finite: Gerund	V-ing used as noun	<u>Swimming</u> is fun. I like <u>reading</u>.
Non-finite: Participle	V-ing / V3 used as adjective	a <u>crying</u> baby, a <u>broken</u> glass

Primary Auxiliaries — Be / Do / Have

Auxiliary	Forms	Usage
be	am, is, are, was, were, being, been	Continuous tenses, passive voice, linking verb
do	do, does, did	Questions, negatives, emphasis
have	have, has, had, having	Perfect tenses

Modal Verbs — Usage

Modal	Meaning	Example
can	Ability / Permission	I can swim. Can I go?
could	Past ability / Polite request	He could run fast. Could you help?
will	Future / Determination	I will come. He will pass.
would	Polite request / Past habit	Would you come? He would play daily.
shall	Suggestion / Future (1st person)	Shall we go? I shall return.
should	Advice / Obligation	You should study hard.
may	Permission / Possibility	May I come in? It may rain.
might	Weak possibility / Past permission	It might rain today.
must	Strong obligation / Certainty	You must wear a seatbelt.

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Subject-Verb Agreement: A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. “He goes” (not go). “They go” (not goes). Words like each, every, everyone, nobody take singular verbs.

Adverb — Types

Type	Definition	Examples
Manner	How something happens	quickly, slowly, carefully, happily, loudly, hard
Place	Where something happens	here, there, everywhere, outside, upstairs, below
Time	When something happens	now, then, yesterday, soon, already, today, tomorrow
Frequency	How often	always, often, usually, sometimes, never, rarely, seldom
Degree	To what extent	very, quite, too, enough, almost, rather, extremely
Affirmative/Negative	Confirms or denies	yes, surely, certainly / not, never, hardly, scarcely
Interrogative	Asks a question	how, when, where, why, how often, how much
Relative	Relates to antecedent	where, when, why (He came when I called.)

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Adverb Position Rules: (1) Adverb of manner comes after the verb or object: “She sings beautifully.” (2) Adverb of frequency comes before the main verb: “He always gets up early.” (3) Adverb of degree comes before the adjective/adverb: “She is verybeautiful.”

Preposition — Common & Tricky Ones

Preposition	Usage	Examples
in	Enclosed space, months, years, seasons, longer periods	in the room, in January, in 2024, in winter
on	Surface, days, dates, specific days	on the table, on Monday, on 15th August
at	Specific point/place, exact time	at the door, at 5 o'clock, at school, at night
to	Direction, destination, time span	go to school, from Monday to Friday
for	Purpose, duration, benefit	for you, for two hours, wait for me
with	Accompaniment, instrument	come with me, cut with a knife
by	Near, means, deadline, agent (passive)	by the river, by bus, by Monday, written by her
from	Origin, source, starting point	from Delhi, from morning to evening
about	Topic, approximately	talk about sports, about 50 people
since	Point of time in past	since 2010, since Monday, since morning
for vs since	Duration vs point of time	for three years (duration) vs since 2020 (point)
between	Two things/people	between you and me, between 5 and 6 pm
among	More than two, in a group	among the students, among the crowd
beside vs besides	Next to vs in addition to	beside the river vs besides English she knows Hindi
in front of	Before (physical position)	in front of the school

Conjunction — Types

Type	Definition	Examples
Coordinating (FANBOYS)	Joins equal elements	For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
Subordinating	Joins dependent to independent clause	because, although, if, unless, when, while, before, after, since, until, though, as
Correlative	Work in pairs	either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and, whether...or, so...that, such...that, as...as
Conjunctive Adverb	Connects independent clauses	however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, nevertheless, meanwhile, otherwise, instead

Interjection — Common Expressions

Interjection	Emotion	Example
Wow!	Surprise / Admiration	Wow! What a beautiful dress!
Alas!	Sorrow / Grief	Alas! He is no more.
Oh!	Surprise / Realization	Oh! I forgot the keys.
Hurrah!	Joy / Victory	Hurrah! We won the match!
Ouch!	Pain	Ouch! That hurts!
Bravo!	Appreciation	Bravo! Excellent performance!
Shh!	Silence	Shh! The baby is sleeping.
Hush!	Quiet	Hush! Don't make a noise.

Determiners — Articles & Quantifiers

Articles (a/an)Indefinite — used before singular countable nouns; a before consonant sound, an before vowel sound (a book, an apple, an hour, a university)

Article (the)Definite — refers to specific noun (the Sun, the longest river, the Ganga, the Himalayas)

Demonstrativesthis/that (singular), these/those (plural) — point to specific things near or far

Possessivesmy, your, his, her, its, our, their — show ownership

Quantifiers (some/any)some in affirmative sentences & offers; any in negative & questions

Quantifiers (many/much)many with countable; much with uncountable (many books, much water)

Quantifiers (few/little)few/a few (countable); little/a little (uncountable); few/little = negative, a few/a little = positive

Quantifiers (each/every)each (individual, two+); every (general, three+)

Quantifiers (all/none)all = whole; none = not any; both take singular/plural verb depending on context

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few vs a few vs the few: few = hardly any (negative), a few = some (positive), the few = the only ones. Same pattern: little / a little / the little.

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Tenses

CLASS 6–9

All 12 Tenses — Overview

Tense	Structure	Example
Present Simple	V1 / V5+s/es	He plays cricket.
Present Continuous	is/am/are + V-ing	He is playing cricket.
Present Perfect	has/have + V3	He has played cricket.
Present Perfect Continuous	has/have been + V-ing	He has been playing for 2 hours.
Past Simple	V2	He played cricket.
Past Continuous	was/were + V-ing	He was playing cricket.
Past Perfect	had + V3	He had played before I came.
Past Perfect Continuous	had been + V-ing	He had been playing for 2 hours.
Future Simple	will/shall + V1	He will play cricket.
Future Continuous	will be + V-ing	He will be playing at 5 pm.
Future Perfect	will have + V3	He will have played by then.
Future Perfect Continuous	will have been + V-ing	He will have been playing for 3 hours.

Present Tenses — Detailed

Tense	Structure	Usage	Example
Simple Present	V1 (I/you/we/they) V5+s/es (he/she/it)	Universal truth, habitual action, fixed arrangement	The Sun rises in the east. She reads daily. The train leaves at 6.
Present Continuous	is/am/are + V-ing	Action happening now, planned future, temporary situation	I am writing a letter. We are going to Delhi tomorrow. She is living in Mumbai these days.
Present Perfect	has (he/she/it) have (I/you/we/they) + V3	Completed action with present result, experience, recent action	She has finished her homework. I have visited Paris. He has just arrived.
Present Perfect Continuous	has/have been + V-ing + since/for	Action started in past, still continuing	I have been waiting since morning. She has been reading for 3 hours.

Past Tenses — Detailed

Tense	Structure	Usage	Example
Simple Past	V2	Completed action in past, past habit	She went to school. He played cricket daily (past habit).
Past Continuous	was/were + V-ing	Action going on at a specific time in past, two simultaneous past actions	She was reading at 8 pm. While he was sleeping, I was cooking.
Past Perfect	had + V3	Action completed before another past action	She had left before I arrived. The train had already gone.
Past Perfect Continuous	had been + V-ing + since/for	Action continuing up to a point in past	He had been working for 5 hours before he took rest.

Future Tenses — Detailed

Tense	Structure	Usage	Example
Simple Future	will/shall + V1	Future action, promise, prediction, sudden decision	She will come tomorrow. I shall help you. I will answer the phone!
Future Continuous	will be + V-ing	Action will be in progress at a future time	At 5 pm tomorrow, I will be studying. She will be cooking then.
Future Perfect	will have + V3	Action will be completed by a future time	By next year, I will have graduated. She will have finished by 6 pm.
Future Perfect Continuous	will have been + V-ing + since/for	Action will continue for a duration by a future time	By December, I will have been working here for 2 years.

Verb Forms — V1, V2, V3, V4, V5

V1 (Base)	V2 (Past)	V3 (Past Participle)	V4 (Present Participle)	V5 (Simple Present)
be	was/were	been	being	am/is/are
go	went	gone	going	goes
eat	ate	eaten	eating	eats
write	wrote	written	writing	writes
speak	spoke	spoken	speaking	speaks
take	took	taken	taking	takes
give	gave	given	giving	gives
make	made	made	making	makes
see	saw	seen	seeing	sees
come	came	come	coming	comes
do	did	done	doing	does
get	got	got/gotten	getting	gets
run	ran	run	running	runs
sit	sat	sat	sitting	sits
buy	bought	bought	buying	buys
think	thought	thought	thinking	thinks
know	knew	known	knowing	knows
teach	taught	taught	teaching	teaches
bring	brought	brought	bringing	brings
catch	caught	caught	catching	catches
swim	swam	swum	swimming	swims
sing	sang	sung	singing	sings
begin	began	begun	beginning	begins
drive	drove	driven	driving	drives
wear	wore	worn	wearing	wears

Spelling Rules — V-ing Forms

General ruleAdd -ing (go → going, read → reading)

Drop silent -emake → making, write → writing, come → coming

CVC — double last letterrun → running, sit → sitting, swim → swimming, stop → stopping

-ee / -ye endingAdd -ing directly: see → seeing, dye → dyeing

-ie endingChange -ie to -y + -ing: die → dying, lie → lying, tie → tying

-c endingAdd -k + -ing: panic → panicking, picnic → picnicking

Spelling Rules — Past Tense (-ed) Forms

General ruleAdd -ed (walk → walked, play → played)

Verb ends in -eAdd only -d (like → liked, bake → baked)

CVC — double last letterstop → stopped, plan → planned, clap → clapped

Verb ends in -y after consonantChange -y to -ied: cry → cried, study → studied

Verb ends in -y after vowelAdd -ed: play → played, enjoy → enjoyed

Irregular verbsMust be memorized — go/went/gone, eat/ate/eaten, etc.

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Key Signal Words: Present Simple: always, usually, often, every day. Present Continuous: now, right now, at the moment. Present Perfect: already, just, yet, ever, never, since, for, recently. Past Simple: yesterday, last week, ago, in 2020. Past Continuous: while, when (two past actions). Future: tomorrow, next week, soon.

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Voice & Narration

CLASS 9–10

Active vs Passive Voice — Concept

Feature	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Subject	Performs the action	Receives the action
Focus	On the doer	On the action/receiver
Structure	Subject + Verb + Object	Object + be + V3 + by + Subject
Example	Ram writes a letter.	A letter is written by Ram.
Clarity	Direct, clear, preferred	Formal, when doer is unknown/unimportant

Passive Voice — Tense-wise Conversion

Tense	Active	Passive
Simple Present	He writes a letter.	A letter is written by him.
Present Continuous	He is writing a letter.	A letter is being written by him.
Present Perfect	He has written a letter.	A letter has been written by him.
Simple Past	He wrote a letter.	A letter was written by him.
Past Continuous	He was writing a letter.	A letter was being written by him.
Past Perfect	He had written a letter.	A letter had been written by him.
Simple Future	He will write a letter.	A letter will be written by him.
Future Perfect	He will have written a letter.	A letter will have been written by him.
Modal: can	He can write a letter.	A letter can be written by him.
Modal: must	He must write a letter.	A letter must be written by him.
Modal: should	He should write a letter.	A letter should be written by him.

Passive Voice — Special Cases

Imperative (Command)Active: “Open the door.” → Passive: “Let the door be opened.” / “You are requested to open the door.”

Imperative (Request)Active: “Please help me.” → Passive: “You are requested to help me.”

Interrogative (Yes/No)Active: “Do you know him?” → Passive: “Is he known to you?”

Interrogative (Wh-)Active: “Why did she beat him?” → Passive: “Why was he beaten by her?”

Negative sentenceActive: “She does not eat meat.” → Passive: “Meat is not eaten by her.”

With two objectsActive: “She gave me a book.” → Passive: “A book was given to me by her.” OR “I was given a book by her.”

No object (intransitive)Cannot be changed to passive voice (e.g., “She sleeps.”)

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Passive Conversion Steps:(1) Identify subject, verb, object. (2) Make object the new subject. (3) Use “be” form matching the tense + V3. (4) Make original subject the agent with “by”. (5) Change pronouns: I→me, he→him, she→her, they→them, we→us.

Direct to Indirect Speech — Rules

Rule	Direct	Indirect
Reporting verb change	He said to me, “...”	He told me that...
Said → told (with object)	She said, “I am tired.”	She said that she was tired.
Said to → told	He said to me, “Go.”	He told me to go.

Tense Changes in Indirect Speech (Back-shifting)

Direct (Reporting Verb Past)	Indirect (Changed To)
Present Simple (V1/V5+s)	Past Simple (V2)
Present Continuous (is/am/are + V-ing)	Past Continuous (was/were + V-ing)
Present Perfect (has/have + V3)	Past Perfect (had + V3)
Present Perfect Continuous (has/have been + V-ing)	Past Perfect Continuous (had been + V-ing)
Past Simple (V2)	Past Perfect (had + V3)
Past Continuous (was/were + V-ing)	Past Perfect Continuous (had been + V-ing)
shall	should
will	would
can	could
may	might

Time & Place Word Changes

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
here	there
now	then
today	that day
tomorrow	the next day / the following day
yesterday	the previous day / the day before
this	that
these	those
ago	before
last night	the previous night
next week	the following week
come	go
brings	took

Pronoun Changes in Indirect Speech

Situation	Direct	Indirect
1st person pronouns	Change to match speaker	He said, “<u>I</u> am busy.” → He said that <u>he</u> was busy.
2nd person pronouns	Change to match listener	He said to <u>me</u>, “<u>You</u> are wrong.” → He told <u>me</u> that <u>I</u> was wrong.
3rd person pronouns	No change	She said, “<u>He</u> is kind.” → She said that <u>he</u> was kind.

Special Cases — Questions, Commands, Exclamations

Yes/No QuestionDirect: “Are you going?” she asked. → Indirect: She asked if/whether I was going.

Wh- QuestionDirect: “Where do you live?” he asked. → Indirect: He asked where I lived.

Command/RequestDirect: “Sit down,” said the teacher. → Indirect: The teacher ordered/asked me to sit down.

ExclamationDirect: “Alas! I am ruined,” she said. → Indirect: She exclaimed with sorrow that she was ruined.

Wish/PrayerDirect: “May God bless you,” he said. → Indirect: He wished that God might bless me.

No tense change (if universal truth)Direct: He said, “The Earth revolves around the Sun.” → Indirect: He said that the Earth revolves around the Sun.

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When NOT to change tense: If the reporting verb is in present or future tense, no back-shifting of tenses occurs. “He says, 'I am happy.'” → “He says that he ishappy.” Also, universal truths, habitual facts, and historical events stay the same.

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Clauses & Determiners

CLASS 9–12

Clause — Definition & Types

DefinitionA group of words with a subject and a verb that forms part of a sentence

Main (Independent) ClauseCan stand alone as a complete sentence — “I like coffee.”

Subordinate (Dependent) ClauseCannot stand alone — needs a main clause — “because it keeps me awake.”

Types of Subordinate Clauses

Clause Type	Function	Subordinators / Markers	Example
Noun Clause	Works as a noun (subject/object/complement)	that, whether, if, what, how, why, who, when	I know <u>that he is honest</u>. <u>What he said</u> surprised me.
Adjective (Relative) Clause	Modifies a noun like an adjective	who, whom, whose, which, that	The boy <u>who stole the car</u> was caught.
Adverb Clause	Modifies a verb/adjective/adverb like an adverb	because, although, if, unless, when, while, before, after, since, until, as, where	I will wait <u>until you come</u>.
Conditional Clause	Expresses condition	if, unless, provided that, as long as, in case, on condition that	<u>If it rains</u>, I will stay home.

Adverb Clauses — Detailed with Examples

Type	Subordinator	Example
Time	when, while, before, after, until, since, as soon as, as long as	Call me <u>when you reach home</u>. He left <u>before I arrived</u>.
Place	where, wherever	I will go <u>wherever you go</u>.
Reason	because, since, as	He failed <u>because he didn't study</u>.
Purpose	so that, in order that	Work hard <u>so that you may succeed</u>.
Result	so...that, such...that	He was <u>so tired that he couldn't walk</u>.
Condition	if, unless, provided that	<u>If you work hard</u>, you will pass. I won't go <u>unless you come</u>.
Concession	although, though, even though, whereas	<u>Although he was ill</u>, he came to school.
Comparison	than, as...as	She is taller <u>than her sister</u>. He is <u>as brave as</u> a lion.
Manner	as, as if, as though	He speaks <u>as if he were the boss</u>.

Relative Pronouns & Relative Adverbs

Word	Type	Usage	Example
who	Relative Pronoun	Refers to persons (subject)	The man <u>who</u> called you is my uncle.
whom	Relative Pronoun	Refers to persons (object)	The boy <u>whom</u> I met is clever.
whose	Relative Pronoun	Possession (persons/things)	The girl <u>whose</u> bag was stolen cried.
which	Relative Pronoun	Refers to things/animals	The book <u>which</u> you gave me is great.
that	Relative Pronoun	Refers to persons/things	He is the boy <u>that</u> won the prize.
where	Relative Adverb	Refers to place	This is the house <u>where</u> I was born.
when	Relative Adverb	Refers to time	I remember the day <u>when</u> I first met you.
why	Relative Adverb	Refers to reason	Tell me the reason <u>why</u> you were late.

Conditional Clauses — If / Unless

Zero Conditional (general truth)If + present simple, present simple — “If you heat water, it boils.”

First Conditional (possible future)If + present simple, will + V1 — “If it rains, I will stay home.”

Second Conditional (unlikely/hypothetical)If + past simple, would + V1 — “If I were rich, I would buy a car.”

Third Conditional (past unreal)If + past perfect, would have + V3 — “If I had studied, I would have passed.”

Unless (= if not)Unless you work hard, you will not succeed. (= If you do not work hard...)

Provided that (= if, on condition)I will go provided that you accompany me.

In case (= if it happens)Take an umbrella in case it rains.

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Defining vs Non-defining Relative Clauses: Defining clauses give essential info — no commas: “The girl who won the race is my friend.” Non-defining give extra info — commas: “My father, who is a doctor, works at AIIMS.” Note: “that” is only used in defining clauses.

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Vocabulary

CLASS 6–12

Synonyms (Words with Similar Meaning)

Word	Synonym	Word	Synonym
happy	joyful, glad, cheerful	sad	unhappy, sorrowful, gloomy
big	large, huge, enormous	small	tiny, little, minute
fast	quick, rapid, swift	slow	sluggish, gradual, leisurely
brave	courageous, bold, fearless	coward	timid, fearful, faint-hearted
beautiful	pretty, gorgeous, attractive	ugly	hideous, unsightly, dreadful
smart	clever, intelligent, bright	foolish	silly, stupid, ignorant
angry	furious, annoyed, irritated	calm	peaceful, serene, tranquil
rich	wealthy, affluent, prosperous	poor	needy, impoverished, destitute
strong	powerful, robust, mighty	weak	feeble, frail, fragile
old	ancient, elderly, aged	new	recent, modern, novel
begin	commence, start, initiate	end	conclude, finish, terminate
help	assist, aid, support	hurt	injure, harm, wound
show	display, exhibit, reveal	hide	conceal, obscure, mask
silent	quiet, mute, noiseless	loud	noisy, boisterous, thunderous
clean	tidy, neat, spotless	dirty	filthy, grimy, unclean
hard	difficult, tough, arduous	easy	simple, effortless, straightforward
honest	truthful, sincere, upright	dishonest	deceitful, corrupt, untruthful
famous	renowned, celebrated, eminent	unknown	obscure, anonymous, unfamiliar
abundant	plentiful, ample, copious	scarce	rare, limited, insufficient
enemy	foe, opponent, adversary	friend	companion, ally, comrade
cry	weep, sob, wail	laugh	chuckle, giggle, roar
ask	inquire, question, request	answer	respond, reply, retort
buy	purchase, acquire, obtain	sell	vend, market, dispose of
walk	stroll, stride, march	run	sprint, dash, jog

Antonyms (Words with Opposite Meaning)

Word	Antonym	Word	Antonym
ancient	modern	borrow	lend
create	destroy	courage	cowardice
danger	safety	dark	light
expand	shrink	fail	succeed
generous	stingy	guilty	innocent
honest	dishonest	innocent	guilty
joy	sorrow	kind	cruel
lazy	active	minor	major
narrow	wide	obey	disobey
permanent	temporary	quick	slow
real	fake	rough	smooth
safe	dangerous	true	false
usual	unusual	victory	defeat
wise	foolish	xin	xout
arrive	depart	ascend	descend
blame	praise	cruel	kind
dry	wet	empty	full
gentle	harsh	humble	proud
ignorant	knowledgeable	justice	injustice
love	hate	mercy	cruelty
noise	silence	optimist	pessimist
polite	rude	poverty	wealth
reward	punishment	sharp	blunt
thick	thin	unique	common

One-Word Substitutions

Phrase / Description	One Word
A person who loves books	Bibliophile
A person who hates women	Misogynist
A person who knows many languages	Polyglot
A person who walks in sleep	Somnambulist
A government by the people	Democracy
A government by one person	Autocracy / Dictatorship
A person who can speak two languages	Bilingual
A person who does not believe in God	Atheist
A place where birds are kept	Aviary
A place where bees are kept	Apiary
A collection of poems	Anthology
One who eats human flesh	Cannibal
A person who compiles a dictionary	Lexicographer
A place where medicines are prepared	Pharmacy
A place where soldiers live	Barracks
A person who loves mankind	Philanthropist
One who is new to a field	Novice / Amateur
A word that reads the same forwards and backwards	Palindrome
The speech made by a person for the first time	Maiden speech
A person who travels to holy places	Pilgrim
Fear of heights	Acrophobia
A person who works for free	Volunteer
That which cannot be conquered	Invincible
A person who leaves his own country to settle abroad	Emigrant

Common Idioms & Their Meanings

Idiom	Meaning
A piece of cake	Something very easy to do
Break the ice	To initiate a conversation
Burning the midnight oil	Working late into the night
Call it a day	To stop working on something
Cost an arm and a leg	Very expensive
Cut corners	To do something cheaply / bypass steps
Hit the nail on the head	To say exactly the right thing
Once in a blue moon	Very rarely
Bite the bullet	To face a difficult situation bravely
Under the weather	Feeling ill or sick
Spill the beans	To reveal a secret
The ball is in your court	It is your decision now
A blessing in disguise	Something good that seemed bad initially
Beat around the bush	To avoid getting to the point
Cry over spilt milk	To regret past actions that cannot be changed
Every cloud has a silver lining	There is something positive in every negative situation
Jump on the bandwagon	To join a popular trend or activity
Let the cat out of the bag	To accidentally reveal a secret
Miss the boat	To miss an opportunity
Rule of thumb	A general principle (not always exact)

Common Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal Verb	Meaning	Example
give up	quit, surrender	Don't give up on your dreams.
look after	take care of	She looks after her younger brother.
look into	investigate	The police are looking into the matter.
put off	postpone	The meeting was put off till Monday.
put up with	tolerate	I cannot put up with his rude behaviour.
carry on	continue	Please carry on with your work.
bring up	raise (a child) / mention	She brought up three children alone.
come across	find by chance	I came across an old photograph.
figure out	understand, solve	I cannot figure out this problem.
get along (with)	have good relations	She gets along well with everyone.
get over	recover from	He is getting over his illness.
give in	surrender, yield	He gave in to their demands.
go off	expire / ring	The alarm went off at 6 am.
hold on	wait	Hold on a moment, please.
make up	invent / reconcile	He made up an excuse. / They made up after the fight.
pass away	die	His grandfather passed away last night.
run out of	have no more of	We have run out of milk.
set up	establish	She set up a new business.
take off	remove / (aircraft) leave ground	The plane took off on time.
turn down	reject	She turned down the job offer.

Homophones (Same Sound, Different Meaning/Spelling)

Word 1	Word 2	Homophones	Meaning
accept (receive)	except (excluding)	board (plank) / bored (tired)	Homophones sound the same but differ in meaning and spelling
affect (verb: influence)	effect (noun: result)	brake (stop) / break (smash)	Note: affect is usually a verb, effect is usually a noun
their (possessive)	there (place) / they're (they are)	cell (prison) / sell (trade)	These are commonly confused in exams
its (possessive)	it's (it is)	die (cease living) / dye (colour)	Its is possessive; it's = it is or it has
your (possessive)	you're (you are)	fair (just) / fare (fee)	Your book vs You are late
loose (not tight)	lose (misplace)	hole (gap) / whole (complete)	The knot is loose / Don't lose your keys
principal (head/chief)	principle (rule/belief)	knight (warrior) / night (dark time)	School principal / moral principle
stationary (not moving)	stationery (paper/supplies)	plain (simple) / plane (aircraft)	The car was stationary / Buy stationery
complement (complete)	compliment (praise)	peace (calm) / piece (portion)	The wine complements the dish / Pay a compliment
altar (religious)	alter (change)	right (correct) / write (pen)	Altar in a church / Alter the plan
born (birth)	borne (carried)	sight (vision) / site (place)	He was born in Delhi / The cost was borne by all
desert (dry land)	dessert (sweet dish)	steal (theft) / steel (metal)	Sahara Desert / Ice cream dessert
advice (noun)	advise (verb)	practise (verb) / practice (noun)	Give me advice / I advise you to study
bare (naked/empty)	bear (animal/carry)	role (part) / roll (bread)	Bare feet / Bear the pain
dear (loved/costly)	deer (animal)	soar (fly) / sore (painful)	Dear friend / A wild deer
flower (bloom)	flour (powder)	tale (story) / tail (animal)	Beautiful flower / Wheat flour
hair (on head)	hare (rabbit)	whether (if) / weather (climate)	Black hair / A fast hare
heal (cure)	heel (foot)	weak (not strong) / week (7 days)	The wound will heal / Heel of shoe
knew (past of know)	new (fresh)	wait (stay) / weight (mass)	I knew the answer / A new car
meat (flesh)	meet (encounter)	would (modal) / wood (timber)	I don't eat meat / Nice to meet you
coarse (rough)	course (path/class)	soar (fly) / sore (painful)	Coarse cloth / Of course
grate (shred)	great (big)	idle (lazy) / idol (worship)	Great work / An idle student
piece (portion)	peace (calm)	right (correct) / write (pen)	A piece of cake / World peace
sight (vision)	site (place)	steal (theft) / steel (metal)	The sight was beautiful / A construction site
plain (simple)	plane (aircraft)	weak (not strong) / week (7 days)	Plain clothes / A plane flew over
sail (boat)	sale (selling)	steak (meat) / stake (stick)	Set sail / For sale
profit (gain)	prophet (religious)	cereal (food) / serial (series)	Make a profit / A cereal box
ascend (go up)	amount (quantity)	assent (agreement)	Ascend the hill / Assent to the plan
council (committee)	counsel (advice)	eligible (qualified) / illegible (unreadable)	Seek counsel from the council / Illegible writing
desert (abandon)	dessert (sweet)	discreet (careful) / discrete (separate)	A discreet inquiry / Discrete parts
stationary (still)	stationery (supplies)	complement (complete) / compliment (praise)	The wine complements the dish / Pay a compliment

Foreign Words Commonly Used in English

Word	Language	Meaning
Bona fide	Latin	Genuine, authentic
Ad hoc	Latin	For this specific purpose
Per capita	Latin	Per person
Status quo	Latin	Current state of affairs
Vice versa	Latin	The other way around
Curriculum vitae (CV)	Latin	Course of life (resume)
Renaissance	French	Revival / rebirth
Bourgeoisie	French	Middle class
Coup d'état	French	Sudden seizure of power
Faux pas	French	Social blunder / mistake
RSVP	French	Please respond (répondez s'il vous plaît)
Kindergarten	German	Children's school
Wanderlust	German	Strong desire to travel
Zeitgeist	German	Spirit of the times
Paparazzi	Italian	Freelance photographers
Pizza	Italian	Italian flatbread dish
Entrepreneur	French	Business person who starts a venture
Carte blanche	French	Complete freedom to act
Déjà vu	French	Feeling of having experienced before
Etc.	Latin	And other things (et cetera)

Common Prefixes

Prefix	Meaning	Example
un-	not	unhappy, unfair, unable
in-/im-	not	incorrect, impossible, impolite
dis-	not / opposite	disagree, dislike, disconnect
re-	again	rewrite, redo, rebuild
pre-	before	prepaid, prehistoric, preview
mis-	wrong / badly	misunderstand, misplace, misbehave
over-	too much	overeat, overload, overwork
under-	too little	underestimate, underpaid
sub-	under / below	submarine, subtitle, subconscious
super-	above / beyond	superman, superstar, supernatural
anti-	against	anti-social, anti-national, antibiotic
auto-	self	automatic, autobiography
bi-	two	bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly
tri-	three	triangle, tricolour, tricycle
tele-	distance	telephone, television, telescope

Common Suffixes

Suffix	Meaning / Forms	Example
-er / -or	one who does	teacher, driver, actor, doctor
-ness	state of being	happiness, sadness, darkness
-tion / -sion	action / state	education, action, discussion
-ment	action / result	enjoyment, movement, development
-ful	full of	beautiful, careful, hopeful
-less	without	careless, hopeless, fearless
-able / -ible	capable of	readable, visible, possible
-ous	full of / having	dangerous, famous, curious
-al	relating to	national, personal, traditional
-ly	in the manner of	quickly, slowly, happily
-ity	state / quality	honesty, purity, creativity
-ize / -ise	to make / become	modernize, organize, realize

Word Roots — Common Latin & Greek Roots

Root	Language	Meaning	Derived Words
aud	Latin	hear	audience, audio, audible, audition
bene	Latin	good	benefit, benevolent, benefactor, benediction
bio	Greek	life	biology, biography, biosphere, biopsy
chron	Greek	time	chronology, chronic, chronicle, synchronize
dict	Latin	say/speak	dictate, dictionary, predict, contradict
geo	Greek	earth	geography, geology, geometry, geothermal
graph	Greek	write/draw	autograph, biography, telegraph, paragraph
jur/jus	Latin	law	jury, justice, jurisdiction, justify
log/logy	Greek	word/study of	logic, dialogue, biology, psychology
luc/lum	Latin	light	lucid, illuminate, luminous, translucent
man/manu	Latin	hand	manual, manufacture, manuscript, manipulate
morph	Greek	form/shape	metamorphosis, amorphous, morphology
path	Greek	feeling/disease	sympathy, empathy, pathology, pathetic
phon	Greek	sound	telephone, phonetics, symphony, microphone
port	Latin	carry	transport, portable, export, import, support
scrib/script	Latin	write	describe, prescribe, manuscript, inscription
spect	Latin	see/look	inspect, spectator, respect, spectacle, suspect
struct	Latin	build	construct, structure, destroy, instruct
therm	Greek	heat	thermometer, thermal, thermostat, thermometer
vid/vis	Latin	see	video, vision, visible, revise, evidence, provide
vac	Latin	empty	vacant, vacuum, vacation, evacuate
ver	Latin	truth	verify, verdict, verity, veritable
viv/vit	Latin	life	survive, vivid, vital, vitamin, revive

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Word Formation Tip: Understanding roots helps decode unfamiliar words. bene (good) → benefit, benevolent. dict (say) → dictate, dictionary. geo (earth) → geography, geology. graph (write) → autobiography, telegraph.

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Writing Skills

CLASS 6–12

Letter Writing — Formal vs Informal

Feature	Formal Letter	Informal Letter
To whom	Principal, Editor, Officer, Manager	Parents, Friends, Relatives
Tone	Professional, respectful, objective	Personal, friendly, emotional
Language	Formal, no contractions	Casual, contractions allowed
Format	Sender's address → Date → Receiver's address → Subject → Salutation → Body → Closing	Sender's address → Date → Salutation → Body → Closing
Salutation	Respected Sir/Madam, Dear Mr./Ms. + name	Dear Father, Dear friend's name, My dear Ravi
Closing	Yours faithfully/sincerely/obediently	Yours lovingly/affectionately, With love
Subject line	Required (brief, clear)	Not required
Purpose	Complaint, application, enquiry, order	Share news, seek advice, thank, invite

Formal Letter — Structure (Top to Bottom)

1. Sender's AddressTop left (do not write your name at the top)

2. DateBelow sender's address (e.g., 15th March, 2024)

3. Receiver's Designation & AddressOn the left below date (e.g., The Principal, ABC School, City)

4. SubjectBrief, clear subject line — “Subject: Application for Leave”

5. SalutationRespected Sir/Madam, or Dear Mr./Ms. [Last Name],

6. Body — Para 1Introduction — state the purpose of writing

7. Body — Para 2Details — elaborate on the issue/request with facts

8. Body — Para 3Conclusion — action expected or closing remarks

9. ClosingYours faithfully/sincerely/obediently,

10. Name & SignatureYour name below closing, no designation

Article Writing — Format

TitleCatchy, relevant, not too long (e.g., “The Magic of Reading Books”)

By-lineWriter's name below the title

IntroductionHook the reader — quote, question, fact, or anecdote. Introduce the topic.

Body (2-3 paragraphs)Present arguments, facts, examples, and explanations logically

ConclusionSummarize key points, give your opinion, call to action

Word limitUsually 150-200 words (CBSE Board)

TipsUse simple language, short paragraphs, connective words (however, moreover, therefore, thus)

Essay Writing — Structure

IntroductionBegin with a hook. Provide background. State the thesis clearly.

Body — Point 1Topic sentence + explanation + example/evidence

Body — Point 2Another aspect or counter-argument + evidence

Body — Point 3Additional perspective or solution

ConclusionRestate thesis in new words. Summarize key points. End with thought-provoking statement.

Types of essaysNarrative, Descriptive, Expository, Argumentative, Persuasive

Linkers to useFirstly/Secondly/Finally, Moreover, Furthermore, However, In addition, On the other hand, Therefore, Consequently, In conclusion

Story Writing — Elements

TitleA brief, creative title

CharactersWho is the story about? Main character + supporting characters

SettingWhere and when does the story take place?

PlotBeginning (introduction), Middle (conflict/climax), End (resolution)

ThemeUnderlying message or moral of the story

Point of ViewFirst person (I) or Third person (he/she)

DialogueMake conversations natural and purposeful

MoralOptional — lessons learned (especially for fable-style stories)

Notice Writing — Format

Part	Details
Name of Organization	Top centre (e.g., ABC School, NOTICE)	Board exams: mention school name
Date	On the left below organization name	Format: 15th March, 2024
Heading / Title	Bold, clear — what the notice is about	LOST & FOUND / EXCURSION / SPORTS DAY
Target Audience	Who is it for?	All students of Class X, Residents of...
Body Content	What, When, Where, Who, Why (5W+1H)	Keep it brief, factual, 40-50 words
Signature & Designation	At the end, bottom right	Principal / Class Teacher / Secretary

Paragraph Writing — Structure

Topic SentenceFirst sentence — introduces the main idea of the paragraph

Supporting Sentences2-4 sentences that explain, give examples, or provide evidence

Concluding SentenceLast sentence — wraps up the paragraph, restates the main idea differently

CoherenceUse transition words: First, Also, Moreover, However, In addition, Therefore, Finally

UnityEvery sentence should relate to the topic sentence — no irrelevant details

TypesDescriptive, Narrative, Expository, Persuasive

Diary Entry — Format

Day & DateTop left — Monday, 15th March 2024

TimeBelow date — 9:00 pm

SalutationDear Diary, (or no salutation)

TonePersonal, reflective, emotional, first person (I)

ContentEvents of the day, feelings, thoughts, reflections

ClosingA closing thought or feeling

Word limit100-150 words

Report Writing — Format

TitleClear, specific — “Report on Annual Sports Day”

By-linePrepared by: [Name], [Class/Roll No.]

IntroductionWhat, where, when, who — 5W1H

BodyDetailed account — events, observations, facts, data

ConclusionSummary, findings, recommendations

ToneFormal, objective, factual (third person preferred)

Word limit150-200 words

Speech Writing — Format

SalutationRespected Principal, teachers, and my dear friends

IntroductionHook + greet audience + introduce topic

Body2-3 paragraphs with arguments, examples, facts

ConclusionCall to action + thank the audience

TonePersuasive, confident, engaging

Format noteDo NOT write it like an essay — address audience directly (you, we, our)

Email Writing — Format

ToRecipient's email address

SubjectBrief, clear subject line

SalutationDear Sir/Madam / Dear [Name],

BodyState purpose in first line. Keep it concise.

ClosingRegards / Yours sincerely / Best wishes + Your name

Formal vs InformalSame rules as letter writing — formal: no contractions; informal: casual tone

Job Application — Format

Sender's AddressYour full address (top left)

DateCurrent date

Receiver's AddressThe HR Manager / Principal / Editor, Organization Name, Address

SubjectApplication for the post of [Position] — reference to advertisement if any

SalutationRespected Sir/Madam,

Para 1Source of information and the position you are applying for

Para 2Your qualifications, experience, and skills relevant to the post

Para 3References to enclosed documents (resume, certificates)

ClosingYours faithfully, + Name + Signature

Debate Writing — Format

SalutationHonourable judges, teachers, and my dear friends

IntroductionIntroduce the topic + state your stance clearly (for/against)

ArgumentsPresent 3-4 strong arguments with facts, examples, statistics

Counter-argumentsAcknowledge opposing view and refute it

ConclusionSummarize + restate your position + call to action

TonePersuasive, confident, formal

ExpressionsI strongly believe... It is a matter of great concern... We must consider...

Connectors & Linking Words for Writing

Purpose	Linking Words
Adding information	and, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, besides, additionally, likewise
Showing contrast	but, however, nevertheless, yet, still, on the other hand, whereas, although, even though
Showing cause	because, since, as, due to, owing to, on account of
Showing result	therefore, thus, hence, consequently, as a result, so, for this reason
Showing sequence	firstly, secondly, next, then, finally, lastly, subsequently, meanwhile
Giving examples	for example, for instance, such as, namely, in particular, to illustrate
Summarizing	in conclusion, to sum up, in brief, overall, all in all, in a nutshell
Emphasizing	indeed, certainly, above all, undoubtedly, without a doubt, most importantly

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Writing Tips for Exams: (1) Always follow the prescribed format. (2) Stick to the word limit. (3) Use simple, clear language. (4) Write in paragraphs — do not write in one block. (5) Use transitional words. (6) Proofread for grammar and spelling errors. (7) Maintain proper margin and line spacing.

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Literature Devices

CLASS 9–12

Figures of Speech — Comprehensive Table

Figure of Speech	Definition	Example
Simile	Comparison of two unlike things using “as” or “like”	As brave as a lion. Life is like a box of chocolates.
Metaphor	Direct comparison without “as” or “like”	Time is money. She is a pearl of great price. He is the apple of my eye.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things	The wind whispered through the trees. The flowers danced in the breeze.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect	I've told you a million times. She cried an ocean of tears.
Alliteration	Repetition of the same initial consonant sound	Peter Piper picked a peck. The silver snake slithered silently.
Onomatopoeia	Words that imitate the sound they represent	Buzz, hiss, cuckoo, bang, crash, whisper, sizzle
Irony	Expression meaning opposite of literal — expectation vs reality	The fire station burned down. A traffic cop got a speeding ticket.
Oxymoron	Two contradictory words together	Deafening silence. Bittersweet. Open secret. Living death. Cruel kindness.
Antithesis	Contrasting ideas in balanced phrases	To err is human; to forgive, divine. Speech is silver, silence is golden.
Metonymy	Substituting name of attribute for the thing itself	The Crown (= the King). The pen is mightier than the sword. The White House announced...
Synecdoche	Part represents the whole or vice versa	All hands on deck (= all sailors). I saw fifty sails (= fifty ships). Wheels (= car).
Litotes	Understatement using double negative for emphasis	He is not a bad singer (= he is good). It is no ordinary day.
Euphemism	Mild/w polite expression for harsh/ unpleasant truth	Passed away (= died). Let someone go (= fire). Senior citizen (= old person).
Pun	Play on words with multiple meanings or similar sounds	Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana. I used to be a baker, but I couldn't make enough dough.
Paradox	Statement that seems contradictory but reveals a truth	Less is more. The child is father of the man. I can resist everything except temptation.

Poetic Devices

Device	Definition	Example
Rhyme Scheme	Pattern of rhyming words at line ends (aabb, abab, abcb)	Twinkle, twinkle, little <u>star</u> (a) / How I wonder what you <u>are</u> (a) — AABB
Rhythm / Meter	Pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables	da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM (iambic tetrameter)
Imagery	Vivid description appealing to the senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell)	The red wheel barrow glazed with rain water beside the white chickens.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities	A dove = peace. A rose = love. A road = choices in life (Robert Frost).
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, place, event, or literary work	He was a real Romeo. I met my Waterloo.
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence beyond the end of a line without a pause	I wandered lonely as a cloud / That floats on high o'er vales and hills.
Repetition	Deliberate repetition of words/phrases for effect	Never, never, never give up. — Churchill. Water, water, everywhere.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words	The gleaming sea. Down by the sea.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds in nearby words	The lump leaped. First and first.
Inversion / Anastrophe	Changing normal word order for effect	Happy the man. Came the dawn. Blessed are the meek.

Common Literary Terms

Term	Definition	Example / Context
Protagonist	Main character of a story	Harry Potter, Raskolnikov, Elizabeth Bennet
Antagonist	Character who opposes the protagonist	Voldemort, Moriarty, Shylock
Soliloquy	Character speaks thoughts aloud, alone on stage	Hamlet's “To be or not to be” soliloquy
Dramatic Monologue	One speaker addressing a silent audience	Robert Browning's “My Last Duchess”
Foil	Character who contrasts with another to highlight qualities	Dr. Watson as foil to Sherlock Holmes
Allegory	Story with hidden moral or political meaning	Animal Farm by George Orwell (allegory of Russian Revolution)
Satire	Use of humour/irony to criticize society	Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal
Epithet	Descriptive phrase expressing a quality	Richard the Lionheart, Alexander the Great
Elegy	Poem of mourning for the dead	Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Gray
Sonnet	14-line poem (Petrarchan or Shakespearean)	Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, “Shall I compare thee”
Ballad	Narrative poem meant to be sung	The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Coleridge
Ode	Poem addressing a person or thing with deep feeling	Ode to a Nightingale by Keats
Haiku	Japanese 3-line poem: 5-7-5 syllables	Matsuo Basho's haiku about the old pond
Tragedy	Serious play with a sad ending; hero falls due to fatal flaw	Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet
Comedy	Light, humorous play with happy ending	A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Comedy of Errors
Catharsis	Emotional release experienced by the audience	Pity and fear in Greek tragedy

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Quick Identification Tips:Simile has “like/as”. Metaphor says X IS Y directly. Personification gives life to non-living things. Hyperbole is extreme exaggeration. Alliteration repeats starting sounds. Irony says opposite of what is meant. Oxymoron puts opposites side by side.

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Common Errors

CLASS 6–12

Confused Words — Commonly Misused Pairs

Wrong / Confused	Correct / Clarification
their / there / they're	<b>their</b> = possessive (their books). <b>there</b> = place (go there). <b>they're</b> = they are.
its / it's	<b>its</b> = possessive (the dog wagged its tail). <b>it's</b> = it is or it has.
effect / affect	<b>affect</b> = verb (the rain affected the match). <b>effect</b> = noun (the effect was disastrous).
then / than	<b>then</b> = time (first we ate, then we left). <b>than</b> = comparison (taller than him).
your / you're	<b>your</b> = possessive (your pen). <b>you're</b> = you are.
loose / lose	<b>loose</b> = not tight (a loose shirt). <b>lose</b> = fail to win / misplace (don't lose hope).
chose / choose	<b>chose</b> = past tense. <b>choose</b> = present tense.
advice / advise	<b>advice</b> = noun (good advice). <b>advise</b> = verb (I advise you).
principal / principle	<b>principal</b> = head of school / main amount. <b>principle</b> = rule / belief.
stationary / stationery	<b>stationary</b> = not moving. <b>stationery</b> = paper/supplies.
complement / compliment	<b>complement</b> = to complete / go with. <b>compliment</b> = praise.
who's / whose	<b>who's</b> = who is. <b>whose</b> = possessive (whose book is this?).
accept / except	<b>accept</b> = receive (I accept your apology). <b>except</b> = excluding (everyone except me).
emigrate / immigrate	<b>emigrate</b> = leave one's country. <b>immigrate</b> = enter another country.
farther / further	<b>farther</b> = physical distance. <b>further</b> = degree/extent (further discussion).
hung / hanged	<b>hung</b> = suspended (hung the painting). <b>hanged</b> = execution by rope.
alright / all right	<b>all right</b> is correct. “alright” is non-standard.
a lot / alot	<b>a lot</b> = many / much. “alot” is always wrong.
desert / dessert	<b>desert</b> = dry land (Sahara Desert). <b>dessert</b> = sweet dish (ice cream dessert).
breath / breathe	<b>breath</b> = noun (take a breath). <b>breathe</b> = verb (breathe deeply).
aisle / isle	<b>aisle</b> = passage (walk down the aisle). <b>isle</b> = island (the Isle of Man).
peak / peek / pique	<b>peak</b> = top. <b>peek</b> = glance. <b>pique</b> = arouse interest.
everyday / every day	<b>everyday</b> (adj) = ordinary. <b>every day</b> = each day.
quite / quiet / quit	<b>quite</b> = very. <b>quiet</b> = silent. <b>quit</b> = stop/resign.

Subject-Verb Agreement — Common Errors

Error	Correct Form	Rule
He don't know.	He doesn't know.	Third person singular: doesn't
The boys is playing.	The boys are playing.	Plural subject takes plural verb
Each of the students have come.	Each of the students has come.	Each/every/everyone = singular verb
Neither of them were present.	Neither of them was present.	Neither = singular verb (formal)
The news are good.	The news is good.	Uncountable nouns take singular verb
Mathematics are difficult.	Mathematics is difficult.	Subjects ending in -s but singular meaning
The cattle is grazing.	The cattle are grazing.	Collective nouns referring to individuals can be plural
Either Ram or his friends is coming.	Either Ram or his friends are coming.	Proximity rule: verb agrees with nearest subject
The jury has divided opinions.	The jury have divided opinions.	When group acts as individuals = plural
A pair of shoes are missing.	A pair of shoes is missing.	“A pair of” = singular
One of the boys have won.	One of the boys has won.	One of = singular verb
Bread and butter are my breakfast.	Bread and butter is my breakfast.	When treated as a single unit = singular

Tense Consistency & Parallelism Errors

Error Type	Incorrect	Correct
Tense shift	He went to the market and buys fruits.	He went to the market and bought fruits.
Tense shift	She was cooking while he read.	She was cooking while he was reading.
Tense shift	I will call you when I will reach home.	I will call you when I reach home.
Tense shift	After he had finished, he takes rest.	After he had finished, he took rest.
Parallelism	She likes reading, writing, and to paint.	She likes reading, writing, and painting.
Parallelism	He is tall, dark, and has hair that is handsome.	He is tall, dark, and handsome.
Parallelism	I enjoy swimming, cycling, and to jog.	I enjoy swimming, cycling, and jogging.
Parallelism	Either you study or to play — choose.	Either you study or you play — choose.
Parallelism	Not only she sings but also dances.	She not only sings but also dances.

Double Negatives & Other Common Errors

Error	Correct	Explanation
I don't know nothing.	I don't know anything.	Two negatives cancel out — avoid double negative
She hardly never comes.	She hardly ever comes.	Hardly + never = double negative
Nobody didn't come.	Nobody came.	Use only one negative word per clause
He has less books.	He has fewer books.	fewer for countable, less for uncountable
She is more taller.	She is taller.	Don't use “more” with short adjectives
This is most easiest.	This is the easiest.	Don't use “most” with short adjectives
I am agree with you.	I agree with you.	Agree is already a verb — no “am” needed
He suggested to go.	He suggested going.	Suggest + V-ing (not infinitive)
She enjoyed at the party.	She enjoyed the party.	Enjoy is transitive — needs object
I and he went there.	He and I went there.	Second person before first (etiquette)
He is more better.	He is better.	Better is already comparative — no “more”
I am having a car.	I have a car.	Have for possession — no continuous form
Could you please to help me?	Could you please help me?	No “to” after modal + verb
Between you and I	Between you and me	Between takes object case (me, not I)
Whom do you think is he?	Who do you think he is?	In questions with “do you think”, use “who”
He told to me a story.	He told me a story.	Tell + person + thing (no “to”)
She is good in English.	She is good at English.	Good at + skill/subject
He is capable to do this.	He is capable of doing this.	Capable of + V-ing

Dangling & Misplaced Modifiers

Error Type	Incorrect	Correct
Dangling Modifier	Walking to school, the rain started.	Walking to school, I got caught in the rain.
Dangling Modifier	Having eaten the food, the bill was paid.	Having eaten the food, he paid the bill.
Dangling Modifier	Being a rainy day, I stayed home.	Since it was a rainy day, I stayed home.
Misplaced Modifier	She almost drove the car for six hours.	She drove the car for almost six hours.
Misplaced Modifier	He only eats vegetables.	He eats only vegetables.
Misplaced Modifier	The man walked the dog in a suit.	The man in a suit walked the dog.
Misplaced Modifier	I saw a bird with binoculars.	With binoculars, I saw a bird.
Squinting Modifier	Students who study daily often pass.	Students who study daily pass often. (ambiguous: often modifies study or pass)

Preposition & Article Errors

Incorrect	Correct	Rule
He is good in maths.	He is good at maths.	good at + subject/skill
She is fond of ice-creams.	She is fond of ice-cream.	Uncountable noun — no plural
I am living here since 2020.	I have been living here since 2020.	since + point of time → present perfect continuous
He married with her.	He married her.	Marry is transitive — no “with”
She is suffering from fever.	She is suffering from a fever.	Fever is countable here — use article
He entered into the room.	He entered the room.	Enter does not take “into”
The gold is expensive.	Gold is expensive.	No article before uncountable general nouns
The sun rises in east.	The sun rises in the east.	Unique things & superlatives need “the”
An university	A university	Use “a" before consonant SOUND (yoo-ni... = consonant sound)
An honest man	An honest man	Use “an" before vowel SOUND (honest = silent h)
She goes to the school.	She goes to school.	No “the" before school, college, hospital (when referring to purpose)
I reached at the station.	I reached the station.	Reach + place directly (no “at")

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Exam Strategy:In Spot the Error questions: (1) Read the sentence carefully for subject-verb agreement. (2) Check tense consistency. (3) Look for double negatives. (4) Verify article usage (a/an/the/none). (5) Check prepositions after adjectives/verbs. (6) Watch for misplaced modifiers. (7) Look for common confused word pairs (their/there, its/it's).

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Golden Rules to Remember:(1) A singular subject always takes a singular verb. (2) “An” is used before vowel sounds, not just vowels. (3) Two negatives make an affirmative — avoid double negatives. (4) Parallel ideas need parallel grammatical forms. (5) Modifiers must be placed next to the word they modify. (6) Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and express a complete thought.

Punctuation — Common Errors

Rule	Incorrect	Correct
Comma splice	He came, he left.	He came. He left. OR He came, and he left.
Missing comma in list	I bought apples mangoes and bananas.	I bought apples, mangoes, and bananas.
Apostrophe for possession	The teachers room	The teacher's room (one) / The teachers' room (plural)
Apostrophe for it	It's tail was wagging.	Its tail was wagging. (possessive, no apostrophe)
Apostrophe for plural	The dog's are playing.	The dogs are playing. (no apostrophe for plural)
Missing question mark	Where are you going.	Where are you going?
Missing quotation marks	She said hello, he replied.	She said “hello”; he replied.
Semicolon misuse	He is good; and kind.	He is good and kind. (semicolon + and = wrong)
Colon misuse	The items are: pen, pencil.	The items are pen and pencil. (colon for a full list)
Hyphen needed	A five year old boy	A five-year-old boy (compound adjective)
Comma before but/and	He ran fast but missed.	He ran fast, but missed. (optional but preferred)
Exclamation after indirect	He exclaimed that he was happy!	He exclaimed that he was happy. (no ! after indirect speech)

Sentence Structure Errors

Error Type	Incorrect	Correct
Sentence fragment	Because she was tired.	She could not work because she was tired.
Run-on sentence	I like dogs she likes cats.	I like dogs, but she likes cats.
Subject missing	Is raining outside.	It is raining outside.
Verb missing	She very beautiful.	She is very beautiful.
Mixed construction	The reason is because...	The reason is that... OR It is because...
Faulty comparison	She is taller than any girl.	She is taller than any other girl. (excluding herself)
Ambiguous pronoun	Ram told Shyam that he was wrong.	Ram told Shyam, “You are wrong.” (clearer)
Redundancy	He repeated the same thing again.	He repeated the thing. (again = redundant)
Redundancy	Return back the book.	Return the book. (back = redundant)
Redundancy	Free gift	Gift (all gifts are free)
Redundancy	Past history	History (all history is past)
Redundancy	Unexpected surprise	Surprise (all surprises are unexpected)

Modals — Common Mistakes

Incorrect	Correct	Rule
He can sings well.	He can sing well.	Modal + V1 (no s/es)
She must goes.	She must go.	Modal + V1 (no s/es)
He should to study.	He should study.	No “to” after modals
You need not to worry.	You need not worry.	No “to” after need not
He dares not to go.	He dares not go.	No “to” after dare not
Used to playing	Used to play / Is used to playing	Used to + V1 (past habit) / Be used to + V-ing (accustomed)
He had better to go.	He had better go.	No “to” after had better
Would rather to stay	Would rather stay	No “to” after would rather
I could be able to come.	I was able to come. OR I could come.	Could and be able to — use one, not both
May can I go?	May I go?	Two modals cannot appear together

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